vill3- 第16部分

　take　these　statements　very　literally　and　to　infer　that　John　Newman　was　alone　to　use　the　virgate　and　to　work　for　it。　He　was　most　probably　married；　and　possibly　had　grown…up　sons　to　help　him；　very　likely　a　brother　was　there　also；　and　even　servants；　poor　houseless　men　from　the　same　village　or　from　abroad。　Every　householder　has　a　more　or　less　considerable　following　（sequela）；（92*）　and　it　was　by　no　means　necessary　for　the　head　of　the　family　to　perform　all　manorial　work　in　his　own　person。　He　had　to　appear　or　to　send　one　workman　on　most　occasions　and　to　come　with　all　his　people　on　a　few　days　　the　boon…days　namely。　The　description　of　the　precariae　is　generally　the　only　occasion　when　the　extents　take　this　into　account；　namely；　that　there　was　a　considerable　population　in　the　village　besides　those　tenants　who　were　mentioned　by　name。（93*）　I　need　not　point　out；　that　the　fact　has　an　important　meaning。　The　medieval　system；　in　so　far　as　it　rested　on　the　distribution　of　holdings；　was　in　many　respects　more　advantageous　to　the　tenantry　than　to　the　lord。　It　was　superficial　in　a　sense；　and　from　the　point　of　view　of　the　lord　did　not　lead　to　a　satisfactory　result；　he　did　not　get　the　utmost　that　was　possible　from　his　subordinates。　The　factor　of　population　was　almost　disregarded　by　it；　households　very　differently　constituted　in　this　respect　were　assumed　to　be　equal；　and　the　tenacity　of　custom　prevented　an　increase　of　rents　and　labour…services　in　proportion　to　the　growth　of　resource　and　wealth　among　the　peasants。　Some　attempts　to　get　round　these　difficulties　are　noticeable　in　the　surveys：　they　are　mostly　connected　with　the　regulation　of　boon…works。　But　these　exceptional　measures　give　indirect　proof　of　the　very　insufficient　manner　in　which　the　question　was　generally　settled。　　　　　The　liabilities　of　the　peasantry　take　the　shape　of　produce；　labour；　and　money…rents。　Almost　in　every　manor　all　three　kinds　of　impositions　are　to　be　found　split　up　into　a　confusing　variety　of　customary　obligations。　It　is　out　of　the　question　to　trace　at　the　present　time；　with　the　help　of　fragmentary　and　later　material；　what　the　original　ideas　were　which　underlie　these　complicated　arrangements。　But　although　a　reduction　to　simple　guiding　principles　accounting　for　every　detail　cannot　be　attempted；　it　is　easy　to　perceive　that　chance　and　fancy　were　not　everything　in　these　matters。　The　several　duties　are　brought　together　so　as　to　form　a　certain　whole；　and　some　of　the　aims　pursued　in　the　grouping　may　be　perceived　even　now。　　　　　The　older　surveys　often　show　the　operation　of　a　system　which　is　adapted　by　its　very　essence　to　a　very　primitive　state　of　society。　It　may　be　called　the　farm…system；　the　word　farm　being　used　in　the　original　sense　of　the　Saxon　feorm；　food；　and　not　in　the　later　meaning　of　fixed　rent；　although　these　two　meanings　appear　intimately　connected　in　history。　The　farm　is　a　quantity　of　produce　necessary　for　the　maintenance　of　the　lord's　household　during　a　certain　period：　it　may　be　one　night's　or　week's　or　one　fortnight's　farm　accordingly。　A　very　good　instance　of　the　system　may　be　found　in　an　ancient　cartulary　of　Ramsey；　now　at　the　British　Museum；　which　though　compiled　in　the　early　thirteenth　century；　constantly　refers　to　the　order　of　Henry　II's　time。　The　estates　of　the　abbey　were　taxed　in　such　a　way　as　to　yield　thirteen　full　farms　of　a　fortnight；　and　each　of　these　was　to　be　used　for　the　maintenance　of　the　monks　through　a　whole　month。　The　extension　of　the　period　is　odd　enough；　and　we　do　not　see　its　reason　clearly。　It　followed　probably　on　great　losses　in　property　and　income　at　the　time　of　Abbot　Walter。　However　this　may　be；　the　thirteen　fortnights'　farms　were　made　to　serve　all　the　year　round；　and　to　cover　fifty…two　weeks　instead　of　twenty…six。　A　very　minute　description　of　the　single　farm　is　given　as　it　was　paid　by　the　manor　of　Ayllington　（i。e。　Elton）。　Every　kind　of　produce　is　mentioned：　flour　and　bread；　beer　and　honey；　bacon；　cheese；　lambs；　geese；　chicken；　eggs；　butter；　&c。　The　price　of　each　article　is　mentioned　in　pence；　and　it　is　added；　that　four　pounds　have　to　be　paid　in　money。　By　the　side　of　the　usual　farm　there　appears　a　'lent'　farm　with　this　distinction；　that　only　half　as　much　bacon　and　cheese　has　to　be　given　as　usual；　and　the　deficiency　is　to　be　made　up　by　a　money　payment。　Some　of　the　manors　of　the　abbey　have　to　send　a　whole　farm；　some　others　only　one　half；　that　is　one　week's　farm；　but　all　are　assessed　to　pay　sixteen　pence　for　every　acre　to　be　used　as　alms　for　the　poor。（94*）　This　description　may　be　taken　as　a　standard　one；　and　it　would　be　easy　to　supplement　it　in　many　particulars　from　the　records　of　other　monastic　institutions。　The　records　of　St。　Paul's；　London；　supply　information　as　to　a　distribution　of　the　farms　at　the　close　of　the　eleventh　century；　which　covered　fifty…two　weeks；　six　days；　and　five…sixths　of　a　day。（95*）　The　firmae　of　St。　Alban's　were　reckoned　to　provide　for　the　fifty…two　weeks　of　the　year；　and　one　in　advance。（96*）　The　practice　of　arranging　the　produce…rents　according　to　farms　was　by　no　means　restricted　to　ecclesiastical　management；　it　occurs　also　on　the　estates　of　the　Crown；　and　was　probably　in　use　on　those　of　lay　lords　generally。　Every　person　a　little　conversant　with　Domesday　knows　the　firmae　unius　noctis；　at　which　some　of　the　royal　manors　were　assessed。（97*）　In　the　period　properly　called　feudal；　that　is　in　the　twelfth　and　thirteenth　centuries；　the　food…revenue　had　very　often　become　only　the　starting…point　for　a　reckoning　of　money…rents。　The　St。　Alban's　farms；　for　example；　are　no　longer　delivered　in　kind；　their　equivalent　in　money　has　taken　their　place。　But　the　previous　state　of　things　has　left　a　clear　trace　in　the　division　by　weeks。　Altogether　it　seems　impossible　to　doubt　that　the　original　idea　was　to　provide　really　the　food　necessary　for　consumption。　One　cannot　help　thinking　that　such　practice　must　have　come　from　the　very　earliest　times　when　a　Saxon　or　a　Celtic　chieftain　got　his　income　from　the　territory　under　his　sway　by　moving　from　one　place　to　another　with　his　retinue　and　feeding　on　the　people　for　a　certain　period。　This　very　primitive　mode　of　raising　income　and　consuming　it　at　the　same　time　may　occasionally　strike　our　eye　even　in　the　middle　of　the　thirteenth　century。　The　tenants　of　the　Abbot　of　Osulveston　in　Donington　and　Byker　are　bound　to　receive　their　lord　during　one　night　and　one　day　when　he　comes　to　hold　his　court　in　their　place。　They　find　the　necessary　food　and　beverage　for　him　and　for　his　men；　provender　for　his　horses；　and　so　forth。　If　the　abbot　does　not　come　in　person；　the　homage　may　settle　about　a　commutation　of　the　duties　with　the　steward　or　the　sergeant　sent　for　the　purpose。　If　he　refuses　to　take　money；　they　must　bring　everything　in　kind。（98*）　　　　　This　is　an　exceptional　instance：　generally　the　farm　has　to　be　sent　to　the　lord's　residence；　probably　after　a　deduction　for　the　requirements　of　the　manor　in　which　it　was　gathered。　When　it　had　reached　this　stage　the　system　is　already　in　decay。　It　is　not　only　difficult　to　provide　for　the　carriage；　but　actually　impossible　to　keep　some　of　the　articles　from　being　spoilt。　Bread　sent　to　Westminster　from　some　Worcestershire　possession　of　the　minster　would　not　have　been　very　good　when　it　reached　its　destination。　The　step　towards　money…payments　is　natural　and　necessary。　　　　　Before　leaving　the　food…rents　we　must　take　notice　of　one　Or　two　more　peculiarities　of　this　system。　It　is　obvious　that　it　was　arranged　from　above；　if　one　may　use　the　expression。　The　assessment　does　not　proceed　in　this　case　by　way　of　an　estimate　of　the　paying　or　producing　strength　of　each　unit　subjected　to　it；　i。e。　of　each　peasant　household。　The　result　is　not　made　up　by　multiplying　the　revenue　from　every　holding　by　the　number　of　such　holdings。　The　whole　reckoning　starts　from　the　other　end；　from　the　wants　of　the　manorial　administration。　The　requirements　of　a　night　or　of　a　week　are　used　as　the　standard　to　which　the　taxation　has　to　conform。　This　being　the　case；　the　correspondence　between　the　amount　of　the　taxes　and　the　actual　condition　of　the　tax…payer　was　only　a　very　loose　one。　Manors　of　very　different　size　were　brought　into　the　same　class　in　point　of　assessment；　and　the　rough　distinctions　between　a　whole　farm　and　half…a…farm　could　not　follow　at　all　closely　the　variety　of　facts　in　real　life；　even　when　they　were　supplemented　by　the　addition　of　round　sums　of　money。　　　　　These　observations　lead　at　once　to　important　questions；　how　was　the　farm…assessment　distributed　in　every　single　manor；　and　what　was　its　influence　on　the　duties　of　the　single　householder？　It　seems　hardly　doubtful；　to　begin　with；　that　the　food…rent　changed　very　much　in　this　respect。　Originally；　when　the　condition　of　things　was　more　or　less　like　the　Osulvestone　example；　the　farm　must　have　been　the　result　of　co…operation　on　the　part　of　all　the　householders　of　a　township；　who　had　to　contribute　according　to　their　means　to　furnish　the　necessary　articles。　But　the　farm　of　St。　Paul's；　London；　even　when　it　is　paid　in　produce；　is　a　very　different　thing。　It　is　the　result　of　a　convention　with　the　firmarius；　or　may　be　with　the　township　itself　in　the　place　of　a　firmarius。（99*）　It　depends　only　indirectly　on　the　services　and　payments　of　the　peasantry。　Part　of　the　flour；　bread；　beer；　etc。；　may　come　from　the　cultivation　of　the　demesne　lands；　another　portion　will　appear　as　the　proceed　of　week…work　and　boon…work　performed　by　the　villains；　and　only　one　portion；　perhaps　a　very　insignificant　one；　will　be　levied　directly　as　produce。　In　this　way　there　is　no　break　between　the　food…rent　system　and　the　labour…system。　One　may　still　exist　for　purposes　of　a　general　assessment　when　the　other　has　already　taken　hold　of　the　internal　arrangement　of　the　manor。　　　　　Most　of　our　documents　present　the　labour　arrangement　in　full　operation。　Each　manor　may　be　regarded　as　an　organised　group　of　households　in　which　the　central　body　represented　by　the　lord's　farm　has　succeeded　in　subordinating　several　smaller　bodies　to　its　directing　influence。　Every　satellite　has　a　movement　of　its　own；　is　revolving　round　its　own　centre；　and　at　the　same　time　it　is　attracted　to　turn　round　the　chief　planet；　and　is　carried　away　in　its　path。　The　constellation　is　a　very　peculiar　one　and　most　significant　for　the　course　of　medieval　history。　Regarded　from　the　economic