vill3- 第15部分

　As　I　have　said　already；　the　auxilium　is　in　every　respect　like　the　donum。　One　very　characteristic　trait　of　both　taxes　is；　that　they　are　laid　primarily　on　the　whole　village；　which　is　made　to　pay　a　certain　round　sum　as　a　body。（78*）　The　burden　is　divided　afterwards　between　the　several　householders；　and　the　number　of　cattle；　and　more　particularly　of　the　beasts　of　plough　kept　on　the　holding；　has　of　course　to　be　taken　into　account　more　than　anything　else。　But　the　manorial　administration　does　not　much　concern　itself　with　these　details：　the　township　is　answerable　for　the　whole　sum。　　　　　It　is　to　be　added　that　the　payment　is　sometimes　actually　mentioned　as　a　political　one　in　direct　connexion　with　'forinsec'　duties　towards　the　king。　The　burdens　which　lay　on　the　land　in　consequence　of　the　requirements　of　State　and　Church　appear　not　unfrequently　in　the　documents。　Among　those　the　scutage　and　hidage　are　the　most　important。　The　first　of　these　taxes　is　so　well　known　that　I　need　not　stop　to　discuss　it。　It　may　be　noticed　however　that　in　relation　to　the　dependent　people　scutage　is　not　commonly　spoken　of；　the　tax　was　levied　under　this　name　from　the　barons　and　the　armed　gentry；　and　was　mostly　transmitted　by　these　to　the　lower　strata　of　society　under　some　other　name；　as　an　aid　or　a　tallage。　Hidage　is　historically　connected　with　the　old　English　Danegeld　system；　and　in　some　cases　its　amount　is　set　out　separately　from　other　payments；　and　the　tenants　of　a　manor　have　to　pay　it　to　the　bailiff　of　the　hundred　and　not　to　the　steward。　A　smaller　payment　called　ward…penny　is　bound　up　with　it；　probably　as　a　substitute　for　the　duty　of　keeping　watch　and　ward。（79*）　In　the　north　the　hidage　is　replaced　by　cornage；（80*）　a　tax　which　has　given　rise　to　learned　controversy　and　doubt；　it　looks　like　an　assessment　according　to　the　number　of　horns　of　cattle；　pro　numero　averiorum；　as　our　Latin　extents　would　say。　The　Church　has　also　an　ancient　claim　on　the　help　of　the　faithful；　the　churchscot　of　Saxon　times　often　occurs　in　the　feudal　age　under　the　name　of　churiset　or　cheriset。（81*）　It　is　mostly　paid　in　kind；　but　may　be　found　occasionally　as　a　money…rent。　　　　　A　survey　of　the　chief　aspects　assumed　by　the　work　and　the　payments　of　the　dependent　people　was　absolutely　necessary；　in　order　to　enable　us　to　understand　the　descriptions　of　rural　arrangements　which　form　the　most　instructive　part　of　the　so…called　extents。　But　every　survey　of　terms　and　distinctions　（even　if　it　were　much　more　detailed　than　the　one　I　am　able　to　present）；　will　give　only　a　very　imperfect　idea　of　the　obligations　actually　laid　on　the　peasantry。　It　must　needs　take　up　the　different　species　one　by　one　and　consider　them　separately；　whereas　in　reality　they　were　meant　to　fit　together　into　a　whole。　On　the　other　hand　it　may　create　a　false　impression　by　enumerating　in　systematic　order　facts　which　belonged　to　different　localities　and　perhaps　to　different　epochs。　To　keep　clear　of　these　dangers　we　have　to　consider　the　deviations　of　practical　arrangements　from　the　rules　laid　down　in　the　books　and　the　usual　combinations　of　the　elements　described。　　　　　When　one　reads　the　careful　notices　in　the　cartularies　as　to　the　number　of　days　and　the　particular　occasions　when　work　has　to　be　performed　for　the　lord；　a　simple　question　is　suggested　by　the　minuteness　of　detail。　What　happened　when　this　very　definite　arrangement　came　into　collision　with　some　other　equally　exacting　order？　One　of　the　three　days　of　week…work　might；　for　instance；　fall　on　a　great　feast；　or　else　the　weather　might　be　too　bad　for　out…of…doors　work。　Who　was　to　suffer　or　to　gain　by　such　casualties？　The　question　is　not　a　useless　one。　The　manorial　records　raise　it　occasionally；　and　their　ways　of　settling　it　are　not　always　the　same。　We　find　that　in　some　cases　the　lord　tried　to　get　rid　of　the　inconveniences　occasioned　by　such　events；　Or　at　least　to　throw　one　part　of　the　burden　back　on　the　dependent　population；　in　Barling；　for　instance；　a　manor　of　St。　Paul's；　London；（82*）　of　two　feasts　occurring　in　one　week　and　even　in　two　consecutive　weeks；　one　profits　to　the　villains　and　the　other　to　the　lord；　that　is　to　say；　the　labourer　escapes　one　day's　work　altogether。　But　the　general　course　seems　to　have　been　to　liberate　the　peasants　from　work　both　on　occasion　of　a　festival　and　if　the　weather　was　exceptionally　inclement。（83*）　Both　facts　are　not　without　importance：　it　must　be　remembered　that　the　number　of　Church　festivals　was　a　very　considerable　one　in　those　days。　Again；　although　the　stewards　were　not　likely　to　be　very　sentimental　as　to　bad　weather；　the　usual　test　of　cold　in　case　of　ploughing　seems　to　have　been　the　hardness　of　the　soil　　a　certain　percentage　of　free　days　must　have　occurred　during　the　winter　at　least。　And　what　is　even　more　to　be　considered　　when　the　men　were　very　strictly　kept　to　their　week…work　under　unfavourable　circumstances；　the　landlord　must　have　gained　very　little　although　the　working　people　suffered　much。　The　reader　may　easily　fancy　the　effects　of　what　must　have　been　a　very　common　occurrence；　when　the　village　householders　sent　out　their　ploughs　on　heavy　clay　in　torrents　of　rain。　The　system　of　customary　work　on　certain　days　was　especially　clumsy　in　such　respects；　and　it　is　worth　notice　that　in　harvest…time　the　landlords　rely　chiefly　on　boon…days。　These　were　not　irrevocably　fixed；　and　could　be　shifted　according　to　the　state　of　the　weather。　Still　the　week…work　was　so　important　an　item　in　the　general　arrangement　of　labour…services　that　the　inconveniences　described　must　have　acted　powerfully　in　favour　of　commutation。　　　　　Of　course；　the　passage　from　one　system　to　the　other；　however　desirable　for　the　parties　concerned；　was　not　to　be　effected　easily　and　at　once：　a　considerable　amount　of　capital　in　the　hands　of　the　peasantry　was　required　to　make　it　possible；　and　another　necessary　requirement　was　a　sufficient　circulation　of　money。　While　these　were　wanting　the　people　had　to　abide　by　the　old　labour　system。　The　facts　we　have　been　discussing　give　indirect　proof　that　there　was　not　much　room　for　arbitrary　changes　in　this　system。　Everything　seems　ruled　and　settled　for　ever。　It　may　happen；　of　course；　that　notwithstanding　the　supposed　equality　between　the　economic　strength　of　the；　different　holdings；　some　tenants　are　unable　to　fulfil　the　duties　which　their　companions　perform。（84*）　As　it　was　noticed　before；　the　shares　could　not　be　made　to　correspond　absolutely　to　each　other；　and　the　distribution　of　work　and　payments　according　to　a　definite　pattern　was　often　only　approximate。（85*）　Again；　the　lord　had　some　latitude　in　selecting　one　or　the　other　kind　of　service　to　be　performed　by　his　men。（86*）　But；　speaking　generally；　the　settlement　of　duties　was　a　very　constant　one；　and　manorial　documents　testify　that　every　attempt　by　the　lord　to　dictate　a　change　was　met　by　emphatic　protests　on　the　part　of　the　peasantry。（87*）　The　tenacity　of　custom　may　be　gathered　from　the　fact　that　when　we　chance　to　possess　two　sets　of　extents　following　each　other　after　a　very　considerable　lapse　of　time；　the　renders　in　kind　and　the　labour…services　remain　unmodified　in　the　main。（88*）　One　has　to　guard　especially　against　the　assumption　that　such　expressions　as　'to　do　whatever　he　is　bid'　or　'whatever　the　lord　commands'　imply　a　complete　servility　of　the　tenant　and　unrestricted　power　on　the　part　of　the　lord　to　exploit　his　subordinate　according　to　his　pleasure。　Such　expressions　have　been　used　as　a　test　of　the　degree　of　subjection　of　the　villains　at　different　epochs；　it　has　been　contended；　that　the　earlier　our　evidence　is；　the　more　complete　the　lord's　sway　appears　to　be。（89*）　The　expressions　quoted　above　may　seem　at　first　glance　to　countenance　the　idea；　but　an　attentive　and　extended　study　of　the　documents　will　easily　show　that；　save　in　exceptional　cases；　the　earlier　records　are　by　no　means　harder　in　their　treatment　of　the　peasantry　than　the　later。　The　eleventh　century　is；　if　anything；　more　favourable　to　the　subjected　class　as　regards　the　imposition　of　labour…services　than　the　thirteenth；　and　we　shall　see　by…and…by　that　the　observation　applies　even　more　to　Saxon　times。　In　the　light　of　such　a　general　comparison；　we　have　to　explain　the　above…mentioned　phrases　in　a　different　way。　'Whatever　he　is　bid'　applies　to　the　quality　and　not　to　the　quantity　of　the　work。（90*）　It　does　not　mean　that　the　steward　has　a　right　to　order　the　peasant　about　like　a　slave；　to　tear　him　at　pleasure　from　his　own　work；　and　to　increase　his　burden　whenever　he　likes。　It　means　simply　that　such　and　such　a　virgater　or　cotter　has　to　appear　in　person　or　by　proxy　to　perform　his　weekwork　of　three　days；　or　two　days；　or　four　days；　according　to　the　case；　and　that　it　is　not　settled　beforehand　what　kind　of　work　he　is　to　perform。　He　may　have　to　plough；　or　to　carry；　or　to　dig　trenches；　or　to　do　anything　else；　according　to　the　bidding　of　the　steward。　A　similar　instance　of　uncertainty　may　be　found　in　the　expression　'without　measure'（91*）　which　sometimes　occurs　in　extents。　It　would　be　preposterous　to　construe　it　as　an　indication　of　work　to　be　imposed　at　pleasure。　It　is　merely　a　phrase　used　to　suit　the　case　when　the　work　had　to　be　done　by　the　day　and　not　by　a　set　quantity；　if；　for　instance；　a　man　had　to　plough　so　many　times　and　the　number　of　acres　to　be　ploughed　was　not　specified。　It　is　true　that　such　vague　descriptions　are　mostly　found　in　older　surveys；　but　the　inference　to　be　drawn　from　the　fact　is　simply　that　manorial　customs　were　developing　gradually　from　rather　indefinite　rules　to　a　minute　settlement　of　details。　There　is　no　difference　in　the　main　principle；　that　the　dependent　householder　was　not　to　be　treated　as　a　slave　and　had　a　customary　right　to　devote　part　of　his　time　to　the　management　of　his　own　affairs。　　　　　Another　point　is　to　be　kept　well　in　view。　The　whole　arrangement　of　a　manorial　survey　is　constructed　with　the　holding　as　its　basis。　The　names　of　virgaters　and　cotters　are　certainly　mentioned　for　the　sake　of　clearness；　but　it　would　be　wrong　to　consider　the　duties　ascribed　to　them　as　aiming　at　the　person。　John　Newman　may　be　said　to　hold　a　virgate；　to　join　with　his　plough…oxen　in　the　tillage　of　twenty　acres；　to　attend　at　three　boon…days　in　harvest　time；　and　so　forth。　It　would　be　misleading　to　take　these　statements　very　literally　and　to　infer　that　John　Newman　was　alone　to　use　the　virgate　and