plough teams。（60*） It is also obvious that the peasantry had to associate for the tilling of their own land； as it was very rare for the single shareholder to possess a sufficient number of beasts to work by himself。 But it must be noticed that alongside of the unwieldy eight…oxen plough we find much lighter ones。 Even on the demesne we may find them drawn by six oxen。 And as for the peasantry； they seem to have very often contented themselves with forming a plough team of four heads。（61*） It is commonly supposed by the surveys that the holder of a yardland joins with one of his fellows to make up the team。 This would mean on the scale of the hide of 120 acres that the team consists of four beasts。（62*） It happens even that a full plough is supposed to belong to two or three peasants； of which every one is possessed only of five acres； in such cases there can be no talk of a big plough； it is difficult to admit even a four…oxen team； and probably those people only worked with one yoke or pair of beasts。（63*） Altogether it would be very wrong to assume in practice a strict correspondence between the size of the holding and the parts of an eight…oxen plough。 The observation that the usual reckoning of the hide and of its subdivisions； according to the pattern of the big team； cannot be made to fit exactly with the real arrangement of the teams owned by the peasantry this firmly established observation leads us once more to the conclusion that the system of equal holdings had become very artificial in process of time and was determined rather by the relation between the peasants and the manorial administration than by the actual conditions of peasant life。 Unhappily the artificial features of the system have been made by modern inquirers the starting point of very far…reaching theories and suppositions。 Seebohm has proposed an explanation of the intermixture of strips as originating in the practice of coaration。 He argues that it was natural to divide the land tilled by a mixed plough…team among the owners of the several beasts and implements。 Every man got a strip according to a certain settled and ever…recurring succession。 I do not pretend to judge of the value of the interesting instances adduced by Seebohm from Celtic practices； but whatever the arrangement in Wales or Ireland may have been； the explanation does not suit the English case。 A doubt is cast on it already by the fact that such a universal feature as the intermixture of strips appears connected with the occurrence of such a special instrument as the eight…oxen plough； The intermixture is quite the same in Central Russia； where they till with one horse； and in England where more or less big ploughs were used。 the doubt increases when we reflect that if the strips followed each other as parts of the plough…team； the great owners would have been possessed of compact plots。 Every holder of an entire hide would have been out of the intermixture； and every virgater would have stood in conjunction with a sequence of three other tenants。 Neither the one nor the other inference is supported by the facts。 The observation that the peasantry are commonly provided with small ploughs drawn by four beasts ruins Seebohm's hypothesis entirely。 One would have to suppose that most fields were divided into two parts； as the majority of the tenements are yardlands with half a team。 The only adequate explanation of the open…field intermixture has been given above； it has its roots in the wish to equalise the holdings as to the quantity and quality of the land assigned to them in spite of all differences in the shape； the position； and the value of the soil。 Before I leave the question as to the holdings of the feudal peasantry； I must mention some terms which occur in different parts of England； although more rarely than the usual hides and virgates。（64*） Of the sulung I have spoken already。 It is a full ploughland； and 200 acres are commonly reckoned to belong to it。 The name is sometimes found out of Kent； in Essex for instance。 In Tillingham； a manor of St。 Paul's of London； we come across six hides 'trium solandarum'。（65*） The most probable explanation seems to be that the hide or unit of assessment is contrasted with the solanda or sulland （sulung）； that is with the actual ploughland； and two hides are reckoned as a single solanda。 The yokes （juga） of Battle Abbey （66*） are not virgates； but carucates； full ploughlands。 This follows from the fact that a certain virgate mentioned in the record is equivalent only to one fourth of the yoke。 In the Norfolk manors of Ely Minster we find tenmanlands （67*） of 120 acres in the possession of several copartitioners； participes。 The survey does not go into a detailed description of tenements and rights； and the reckoning of services starts from the entire combination； as in the Kentish documents。 A commonly recurrent term is wista；（68*） it corresponds to the virgate： a great wista is as much as half…a…hide； or two virgates。（69*） The terms discussed hitherto are applied to the tenements in the fields of the village； but besides those there are other names for the plots occupied by a numerous population which did not find a place in the regular holdings。 There were craftsmen and rural labourers working for the lord and for the tenants； there were people living by gardening and the raising of vegetables。 This class is always contrasted with the tenants in the fields。 The usual name for their plots is cote； cotland； or cotsetland。 The so…called ferdel； or fourth part of a virgate； is usually mentioned among them because there are no ploughbeasts on it。（70*） Another name for the ferdel is nook。（71*） Next come the crofters； whose gardens sometimes extend to a very fair size as much as ten acres in one enclosed patch。（72*） The cotters proper have generally one； two； and sometimes as much as five acres with their dwellings； they cannot keep themselves on this； as a rule； and have to look out for more on other people's tenements。 A very common name for their plots is 'lundinaria'（73*） 'Mondaylands；' because the holders are bound to work for the lord only one day in the week； usually on Monday。 Although the absence of plough…beasts； of a part in coaration； and of shares in the common fields draws a sharp line between these men and the regular holders； our surveys try sometimes to fit their duties and plots into the arrangement of holdings； the cotland is assumed to represent one sixteenth or even one thirty…second part of the hide。（74*） The Glastonbury Survey of 1189 contains a curious hint that two cottages are more valuable than one half…virgate： two cotlands were ruined during the war； and they were thrown together into half a virgate； although it would have been more advantageous to keep two houses on them； that is two households。（75*） The bordae mentioned by the documents are simply cottages or booths without any land belonging to them。（76*） The manorial police keeps a lookout that such houses may not arise without licence and service。（77*） A good many terms are not connected in any way with the general arrangement of the holdings； but depend upon the part played by the land in husbandry or the services imposed upon it。 To mention a few among them。 A plot which has to provide cheese is called Cheeseland。（78*） Those tenements which are singled out for the special duty of carrying the proceeds of the manorial cultivation get the name of averlands。（79*） The terms lodland；（80*） serland （81*） or sharland； are also connected with compulsory labour。 The first is taken from the duty to carry loads or possibly to load waggons； the second may be employed in reference to work performed with the sithe or reap…hook。 A plot reserved for the leader of the plough…team； the akerman； was naturally called akermanland。（82*） Sometimes； though rarely； the holding gets its name from the money rent it has to pay。 We hear of denerates （83*） and nummates （84*） of land in this connexion。 All these variations in detail do not avail to modify to any considerable extent the chief lines on which the medieval system of holdings is constructed。 I presume that the foregoing exposition has been sufficient to establish the following points： 1。 The principle upon which the original distribution depended was that of equalizing the shares of the members of the community。 This led to the scattering and to the intermixture of strips。 The principle did not preclude inequality according to certain degrees； but it aimed at putting all the people of one degree into approximately similar conditions。 2。 The growth of population； of capital； of cultivation； of social inequalities led to a considerable difference between the artificial uniformity in which the arrangement of the holdings was kept and the actual practice of farming and ownership。 3。 The system was designed and kept working by the influence of communal right； but it got its artificial shape and its legal rigidity from the manorial administration which used it for the purpose of distributing and collecting labour and rent。 4。 The holdings were held together as units； not merely by the superior property of the lord； but by economic considerations。 They were breaking up under the pressure of population； not merely in the case of free holdings； but also where the holdings were servile。
NOTES：
1。 It should be observed that the word demesne （dominicum） is constantly used in two different senses； （a） the narrower sense in which it stands for the land directly occupied and cultivated by the lord or for his use； and excludes the land held by his villain tenants； and （b） the wider sense ill which it includes these villain tenements。 The first meaning is that which the word usually bears in manorial documents； in which the dominicum is contrasted with the villenagium or bondagium。 But in legal pleadings and documents which state the doctrine of the common law and the king's courts the villain tenements are part of the lord's demesne； he is seised of them in his demesne （in dominico suo）。 This discrepancy between what I may call the manorial and the legal uses of the term deserves notice as an indication of the imperfect adjustment of law to fact。 I shall use the term in its narrower sense。
2。 Eynsham Cartul