ombination of these elements； and derives its motion from them； and also that there are antipodes； and that what is below； as respects us； is above in respect of them。 〃He also taught that light and darkness； and cold and heat； and dryness and moisture； were equally divided in the world； and that while heat was predominant it was summer； while cold had the mastery； it was winter； when dryness prevailed； it was spring； and when moisture preponderated； winter。 And while all these qualities were on a level； then was the loveliest season of the year； of which the flourishing spring was the wholesome period； and the season of autumn the most pernicious one。 Of the day； he said that the flourishing period was the morning； and the fading one the evening； on which account that also was the least healthy time。 〃Another of his theories was that the air around the earth was immovable and pregnant with disease； and that everything in it was mortal； but that the upper air was in perpetual motion； and pure and salubrious； and that everything in that was immortal； and on that account divine。 And that the sun and the moon and the stars were all gods； for in them the warm principle predominates which is the cause of life。 And that the moon derives its light from the sun。 And that there is a relationship between men and the gods； because men partake of the divine principle； on which account； also； God exercises his providence for our advantage。 Also； that Fate is the cause of the arrangement of the world both generally and particularly。 Moreover； that a ray from the sun penetrated both the cold aether and the dense aether； and they call the air the cold aether； and the sea and moisture they call the dense aether。 And this ray descends into the depths； and in this way vivifies everything。 And everything which partakes of the principle of heat lives； on which account； also； plants are animated beings； but that all living things have not necessarily souls。 And that the soul is a something tom off from the aether； both warm and cold； from its partaking of the cold aether。 And that the soul is something different from life。 Also； that it is immortal； because that from which it has been detached is immortal。 〃Also； that animals are born from one another by seeds； and that it is impossible for there to be any spontaneous production by the earth。 And that seed is a drop from the brain which contains in itself a warm vapor； and that when this is applied to the womb it transmits virtue and moisture and blood from the brain； from which flesh and sinews and bones and hair and the whole body are produced。 And from the vapor is produced the soul； and also sensation。 And that the infant first becomes a solid body at the end of forty days； but； according to the principles of harmony； it is not perfect till seven； or perhaps nine； or at most ten months； and then it is brought forth。 And that it contains in itself all the principles of life； which are all connected together； and by their union and combination form a harmonious whole； each of them developing itself at the appointed time。 〃The senses in general； and especially the sight； are a vapor of excessive warmth； and on this account a man is said to see through air and through water。 For the hot principle is opposed by the cold one； since； if the vapor in the eyes were cold； it would have the same temperature as the air； and so would be dissipated。 As it is； in some passages he calls the eyes the gates of the sun； and he speaks in a similar manner of hearing and of the other senses。 〃He also says that the soul of man is divided into three parts： into intuition and reason and mind； and that the first and last divisions are found also in other animals； but that the middle one； reason； is only found in man。 And that the chief abode of the soul is in those parts of the body which are between the heart and the brain。 And that that portion of it which is in the heart is the mind； but that deliberation and reason reside in the brain。 Moreover； that the senses are drops from them； and that the reasoning sense is immortal； but the others are mortal。 And that the soul is nourished by the blood； and that reasons are the winds of the soul。 That it is invisible； and so are its reasons； since the aether itself is invisible。 That the links of the soul are the veins and the arteries and the nerves。 But that when it is vigorous； and is by itself in a quiescent state； then its links are words and actions。 That when it is cast forth upon the earth it wanders about； resembling the body。 Moreover； that Mercury is the steward of the souls； and that on this account he has the name of Conductor； and Commercial； and Infernal； since it is he who conducts the souls from their bodies； and from earth and sea； and that he conducts the pure souls to the highest region； and that he does not allow the impure ones to approach them； nor to come near one another； but commits them to be bound in indissoluble fetters by the Furies。 The Pythagoreans also assert that the whole air is full of souls； and that these are those which are accounted daemons and heroes。 Also； that it is by them that dreams are sent among men； and also the tokens of disease and health； these last； too； being sent not only to men； but to sheep also； and other cattle。 Also that it is they who are concerned with purifications and expiations and all kinds of divination and oracular predictions； and things of that kind。〃＇5＇
A brief consideration of this summary of the doctrines of Pythagoras will show that it at least outlines a most extraordinary variety of scientific ideas。 （1） There is suggested a theory of monads and the conception of the development from simple to more complex bodies； passing through the stages of lines； plain figures； and solids to sensible bodies。 （2） The doctrine of the four elementsfire； water； earth； and airas the basis of all organisms is put forward。 （3） The idea； not merely of the sphericity of the earth； but an explicit conception of the antipodes； is expressed。 （4） A conception of the sanitary influence of the air is clearly expressed。 （5） An idea of the problems of generation and heredity is shown； together with a distinct disavowal of the doctrine of spontaneous generation a doctrine which； it may be added； remained in vogue； nevertheless； for some twenty…four hundred years after the time of Pythagoras。 （6） A remarkable analysis of mind is made； and a distinction between animal minds and the human mind is based on this analysis。 The physiological doctrine that the heart is the organ of one department of mind is offset by the clear statement that the remaining factors of mind reside in the brain。 This early recognition of brain as the organ of mind must not be forgotten in our later studies。 It should be recalled； however； that a Crotonian physician； Alemaean； a younger contemporary of Pythagoras； is also credited with the same theory。 （7） A knowledge of anatomy is at least vaguely foreshadowed in the assertion that veins； arteries； and nerves are the links of the soul。 In this connection it should be recalled that Pythagoras was a practical physician。 As against these scientific doctrines； however； some of them being at least remarkable guesses at the truth； attention must be called to the concluding paragraph of our quotation； in which the old familiar daemonology is outlined； quite after the Oriental fashion。 We shall have occasion to say more as to this phase of the subject later on。 Meantime； before leaving Pythagoras； let us note that his practical studies of humanity led him to assert the doctrine that 〃the property of friends is common； and that friendship is equality。〃 His disciples； we are told； used to put all their possessions together in one store and use them in common。 Here； then； seemingly； is the doctrine of communism put to the test of experiment at this early day。 If it seem that reference to this carries us beyond the bounds of science； it may be replied that questions such as this will not lie beyond the bounds of the science of the near future。
XENOPHANES AND PARMENIDES There is a whimsical tale about Pythagoras； according to which the philosopher was wont to declare that in an earlier state he had visited Hades； and had there seen Homer and Hesiod tortured because of the absurd things they had said about the gods。 Apocrypbal or otherwise； the tale suggests that Pythagoras was an agnostic as regards the current Greek religion of his time。 The same thing is perhaps true of most of the great thinkers of this earliest period。 But one among them was remembered in later times as having had a peculiar aversion to the anthropomorphic conceptions of his fellows。 This was Xenophanes； who was born at Colophon probably about the year 580 B。C。； and who； after a life of wandering； settled finally in Italy and became the founder of the so…called Eleatic School。 A few fragments of the philosophical poem in which Xenophanes expressed his views have come down to us； and these fragments include a tolerably definite avowal of his faith。 〃God is one supreme among gods and men； and not like mortals in body or in mind；〃 says Xenophanes。 Again he asserts that 〃mortals suppose that the gods are born （as they themselves are）； that they wear man's clothing and have human voice and body； but；〃 he continues； 〃if cattle or lions had hands so as to paint with their hands and produce works of art as men do； they would paint their gods and give them bodies in form like their ownhorses like horses； cattle like cattle。〃 Elsewhere he says； with great acumen： 〃There has not been a man； nor will there be； who knows distinctly what I say about the gods or in regard to all things。 For even if one chance for the most part to say what is true； still he would not know； but every one thinks that he knows。〃＇6＇ In the same spirit Xenophanes speaks of the battles of Titans； of giants； and of centaurs as 〃fictions of former ages。〃 All this tells of the questioning spirit which distinguishes the scientific investigator。 Precisely whither this spirit led him we do not know； but the writers of a later time have preserved a tradition regarding a belief of Xenophanes that perhaps entitles him to be considered the father of geology。 Thus Hippolytus records that Xenophanes studied the