Nature is ＇100＇ meant some being distinct from God； as well as from
the laws of nature and things perceived by sense； I must confess that
word is to me an empty sound； without any intelligible meaning annexed
to it。＇ Nature in this acceptation is a vain Chimaera introduced by
those heathens； who had not just notions of the omnipresence and
infinite perfection of God。〃
Compare Seneca （De Beneficiis； iv。 7）：
〃Natura； inquit； haec mihi praestat。 Non intelligis te； quum hoc
dicis； mutare Nomen Deo？ Quid enim est aliud Natura quam Deus； et
divina ratio； toti mundo et partibus ejus inserta？ Quoties voles tibi
licet aliter hunc auctorem rerum nostrarum compellare； et Jovem illum
optimum et maximum rite dices； et tonantem； et statorem： qui non； ut
historici tradiderunt； ex eo quod post votum susceptum acies Romanorum
fugientum stetit； sed quod stant beneficio ejus omnina； stator；
stabilitorque est： hunc eundem et fatum si dixeris； non mentieris； nam
quum fatum nihil aliud est； quam series implexa causarum； ille est
prima omnium causa； ea qua caeterae pendent。〃 It would appear；
therefore； that the good Bishop is somewhat hard upon the 〃heathen；〃
of whose words his own might be a paraphrase。
There is yet another direction in which Berkeley's philosophy； I will
not say agrees with Gautama's； but at any rate helps to make a
fundamental dogma of Buddhism intelligible。
〃I find I can excite ideas in my mind at pleasure； and vary and shift
the scene as often as I think fit。 It is no more than willing； and
straightway this or that idea arises in my fancy： and by the same
power ＇101＇ it is obliterated； and makes way for another。 This making
and unmaking of ideas doth very properly denominate the mind active。
This much is certain and grounded on experience。 。 。〃 （Principles；
xxviii。）
A good many of us； I fancy； have reason to think that experience tells
them very much the contrary； and are painfully familiar with the
obsession of the mind by ideas which cannot be obliterated by any
effort of the will and steadily refuse to make way for others。 But
what I desire to point out is that if Gautama was equally confident
that he could 〃make and unmake〃 ideasthen； since he had resolved
self into a group of ideal phantomsthe possibility of abolishing
self by volition naturally followed。
Note 9 （P。 68）。
According to Buddhism； the relation of one life to the next is merely
that borne by the flame of one lamp to the flame of another lamp which
is set alight by it。 To the 〃Arahat〃 or adept 〃no outward form； no
compound thing； no creature； no creator； no existence of any kind；
must appear to be other than a temporary collocation of its component
parts； fated inevitably to be dissolved。〃（Rhys Davids； Hibbert
Lectures； p。 211。）
The self is nothing but a group of phenomena held together by the
desire of life； when that desire shall have ceased； 〃the Karma of that
particular chain of lives will cease to influence any longer any
distinct individual； and there will be no more birth； ＇102＇ for birth；
decay； and death； grief； lamentation； and despair will have come； so
far as regards that chain of lives； for ever to an end。〃
The state of mind of the Arahat in which the desire of life has ceased
is Nirvana。 Dr。 Oldenberg has very acutely and patiently considered
the various interpretations which have been attached to 〃Nirvana〃 in
the work to which I have referred （pp。 285 et seq。）。 The result of his
and other discussions of the question may I think be briefly stated
thus：
1。 Logical deduction from the predicates attached to the term
〃Nirvana〃 strips it of all reality； conceivability； or perceivability；
whether by Gods or men。 For all practical purposes； therefore； it
comes to exactly the same thing as annihilation。
2。 But it is not annihilation in the ordinary sense； inasmuch as it
could take place in the living Arahat or Buddha。
3。 And； since； for the faithful Buddhist； that which was abolished in
the Arahat was the possibility of further pain； sorrow； or sin； and
that which was attained was perfect peace； his mind directed itself
exclusively to this joyful consummation； and personified the negation
of all conceivable existence and of all pain into a positive bliss。
This was all the more easy； as Gautama refused to give any dogmatic
definition of Nirvana。 There is something analogous in the way in
which people commonly talk of the 〃happy release〃 of a man who has
been long suffering from mortal disease。 According to their own views；
it must always be extremely doubtful whether the man will be any
happier after the 〃release〃 ＇103＇ than before。 But they do not choose
to look at the matter in this light。
The popular notion that； with practical； if not metaphysical；
annihilation in view； Buddhism must needs be a sad and gloomy faith
seems to be inconsistent with fact； on the contrary； the prospect of
Nirvana fills the true believer； not merely with cheerfulness； but
with an ecstatic desire to reach it。
Note 10 （P。 68。）
The influence of the picture of the personal qualities of Gautama；
afforded by the legendary anecdotes which rapidly grew into a
biography of the Buddha； and by the birth stories； which coalesced
with the current folk…lore； and were intelligible to all the world；
doubtless played a great part。 Further； although Gautama appears not
to have meddled with the caste system； he refused to recognize any
distinction； save that of perfection in the way of salvation； among
his followers； and by such teaching； no less than by the inculcation
of love and benevolence to all sentient beings； he practically
levelled every social； political； and racial barrier。 A third
important condition was the organization of the Buddhists into
monastic communities for the stricter professors； while the laity were
permitted a wide indulgence in practice and were allowed to hope for
accommodation in some of the temporary abodes of bliss。 With a few
hundred thousand years of immediate paradise in sight； the average man
could be content to shut his eyes to what might follow。
＇104＇
Note 11 （P。 69）。
In ancient times it was the fashion； even among the Greeks themselves；
to derive all Greek wisdom from Eastern sources； not long ago it was
as generally denied that Greek philosophy had any connection； with
Oriental speculation； it seems probable； however； that the truth lies
between these extremes。
The Ionian intellectual movement does not stand alone。 It is only one
of several sporadic indications of the working of some powerful mental
ferment over the whole of the area comprised between the Aegean and
Northern Hindostan during the eighth； seventh； and sixth centuries
before our era。 In these three hundred years； prophetism attained its
apogee among the Semites of Palestine； Zoroasterism grew and became
the creed of a conquering race； the Iranic Aryans； Buddhism rose and
spread with marvellous rapidity among the Aryans of Hindostan； while
scientific naturalism took its rise among the Aryans of Ionia。 It
would be difficult to find another three centuries which have given
birth to four events of equal importance。 All the principal existing
religions of mankind have grown out of the first three： while the
fourth is the little spring； now swollen into the great stream of
positive science。 So far as physical possibilities go； the prophet
Jeremiah and the oldest Ionian philosopher might have met and
conversed。 If they had done so； they would probably have disagreed a
good deal； and it is interesting to reflect that their discussions
might have ＇105＇ embraced Questions which； at the present day； are
still hotly controverted。
The old Ionian philosophy； then； seems to be only one of many results
of a stirring of the moral and intellectual life of the Aryan and the
Semitic populations of Western Asia。 The conditions of this general
awakening were doubtless manifold； but there is one which modern
research has brought into great prominence。 This is the existence of
extremely ancient and highly advanced societies in the valleys of the
Euphrates and of the Nile。
It is now known that； more than a thousandperhaps more than two
thousandyears before the sixth century B。C。； civilization had
attained a relatively high pitch among the Babylonians and the
Egyptians。 Not only had painting； sculpture； architecture； and the
industrial arts reached a remarkable development； but in Chaldaea； at
any rate； a vast amount of knowledge had been accumulated and
methodized； in the departments of grammar； mathematics； astronomy； and
natural history。 Where such traces of the scientific spirit are
visible； naturalistic speculation is rarely far off； though； so far as
I know； no remains of an Accacian； or Egyptian； philosophy； properly
so called； have yet been recovered。
Geographically； Chaldaea occupied a central position among the oldest
seats of civilization。 Commerce； largely aided by the intervention of
those colossal pedlars； the Phoenicians； had brought Chaldaea into
connection with all of them； for a thousand years before the epoch at
present under consideration。 And in the ninth； eighth and seventh
＇106＇ centuries； the Assyrian； the depositary of Chaldaean
civilization； as the Macedonian and the Roman； at a later date； were
the depositories of Greek culture； had added irresistible force to the
other agencies for the wide distribution of Chaldaean literature； art；
and science。
I confess that I find it difficult to imagine that the Greek
immigrantwho stood in somewhat the same relation to the Babylonians
and the Egyptians as the later Germanic barbarians to the Romans of
the Empireshould not have been immensely influenced by the new life
with which they became acquainted。 But there is abundant direct
evidence of the magnitude of this influence in certain spheres。 I
suppose it is not doubted that the Greek went to school with the
Oriental for his primary instruction in reading； writing； and
arithmetic； and that Semitic theology supplied him with some of his
mythological lore。 Nor does there now seem to be any question about
the large indebtedness of Greek art to that of Chaldaea and that of
Egypt。
But the manner of that indebtedness