Egypt。
But the manner of that indebtedness is very instructive。 The obligation
is clear； but its limits are no less definite。 Nothing better
exemplifies the indomitable originality of the Greeks than the
relations of their art to that of the Orientals。 Far from being
subdued into mere imitators by the technical excellence of their
teachers； they lost no time in bettering the instruction they
received； using their models as mere stepping stones on the way to
those unsurpassed and unsurpassable achievements which are all their
own。 The shibboleth of Art is ＇107＇ the human figure。 The ancient
Chaldaeans and Egyptians； like the modern Japanese； did wonders in the
representation of birds and quadrupeds； they even attained to
something more than respectability in human portraiture。 But their
utmost efforts never brought them within range of the best Greek
embodiments of the grace of womanhood； or of the severer beauty of
manhood。
It is worth while to consider the probable effect upon the acute and
critical Greek mind of the conflict of ideas； social； political； and
theological； which arose out of the conditions of life in the Asiatic
colonies。 The Ionian polities had passed through the whole gamut of
social and political changes； from patriarchal and occasionally
oppressive kingship to rowdy and still more burdensome mobshipno
doubt with infinitely eloquent and copious argumentation； on both
sides； at every stage of their progress towards that arbitrament of
force which settles most political questions。 The marvellous
speculative faculty； latent in the Ionian； had come in contact with
Mesopotamian； Egyptian； Phoenician theologies and cosmogonies； with
the illuminati of Orphism and the fanatics and dreamers of the
Mysteries； possibly with Buddhism and Zoroasterism； possibly even with
Judaism。 And it has been observed that the mutual contradictions of
antagonistic supernaturalisms are apt to play a large part among the
generative agencies of naturalism。
Thus； various external influences may have contributed to the rise of
philosophy among the Ionian Greeks of the sixth century。 But the
assimilative ＇108＇ capacity of the Greek mindits power of
Hellenizing whatever it touchedhas here worked so effectually； that；
so far as I can learn； no indubitable traces of such extraneous
contributions are now allowed to exist by the most authoritative
historians of Philosophy。 Nevertheless； I think it must be admitted
that the coincidences between the Heracleito…stoical doctrines and
those of the older Hindu philosophy are extremely remarkable。 In both；
the cosmos pursues an eternal succession of cyclical changes。 The
great year； answering to the Kalpa； covers an entire cycle from the
origin of the universe as a fluid to its dissolution in fire〃Humor
initium； ignis exitus mundi；〃 as Seneca has it。 In both systems； there
is immanent in the cosmos a source of energy； Brahma； or the Logos；
which works according to fixed laws。 The individual soul is an efflux
of this world…spirit； and returns to it。 Perfection is attainable only
by individual effort； through ascetic discipline； and is rather a
state of painlessness than of happiness； if indeed it can be said to
be a state of anything； save the negation of perturbing emotion。 The
hatchment motto 〃In Coelo Quies〃 would serve both Hindu and Stoic； and
absolute quiet is not easily distinguishable from annihilation。
Zoroasterism； which； geographically； occupies a position intermediate
between Hellenism and Hinduism； agrees with the latter in recognizing
the essential evil of the cosmos； but differs from both in its
intensely anthropomorphic personification of the two antagonistic
principles； to the one of which it ascribes all the good； and； to the
other； all the evil。
＇109＇ In fact； it assumes the existence of two worlds； one good and one
bad； the latter created by the evil power for the purpose of damaging
the former。 The existing cosmos is a mere mixture of the two； and the
〃last judgment〃 is a root…and…branch extirpation of the work of
Ahriman。
Note 12 （p。 69）。
There is no snare in which the feet of a modern student of ancient lore
are more easily entangled； than that which is spread by the similarity
of the language of antiquity to modern modes of expression。 I do not
presume to interpret the obscurest of Greek philosophers； all I wish
is to point out； that his words； in the sense accepted by competent
interpreters； fit modern ideas singularly well。
So far as the general theory of evolution goes there is no difficulty。
The aphorism about the river； the figure of the child playing on the
shore； the kingship and fatherhood of strife； seem decisive。 The
＇Greek phrase osod ano kato mie＇ expresses； with singular aptness； the
cyclical aspect of the one process of organic evolution in individual
plants and animals： yet it may be a question whether the Heracleitean
strife included any distinct conception of the struggle for existence。
Again； it is tempting to compare the part played by the Heracleitean
〃fire〃 with that ascribed by the moderns to heat； or rather to that
cause of motion of which heat is one expression； and a little
ingenuity might find a foreshadowing of the doctrine of the
conservation of energy； in the saying ＇110＇ that all the things are
changed into fire and fire into all things； as gold into goods and
goods into gold。
Note 13 （p。 71）。
Pope's lines in the Essay on Man（Ep。 i。 267…8）；
All are but parts of one stupendous whole；
Whose body Nature is； and God the soul；〃
simply paraphrase Seneca's 〃quem in hoc mundo locum deus obtinet； hunc
in homine animus： quod est illic materia； id nobis corpus est。〃（Ep。
lxv。 24）； which again is a Latin version of the old Stoical doctrine；
＇Greek phrase eis apan tou kosou meros diekei o nous； kataper aph emon
e psuche＇。
So far as the testimony for the universality of what ordinary people
call 〃evil〃 goes； there is nothing better than the writings of the
Stoics themselves。 They might serve； as a storehouse for the epigrams
of the ultra…pessimists。 Heracleitus （circa 500 B。C。） says just as
hard things about ordinary humanity as his disciples centuries later；
and there really seems no need to seek for the causes of this dark
view of life in the circumstances of the time of Alexander's
successors or of the early Emperors of Rome。 To the man with an
ethical ideal； the world； including himself； will always seem full of
evil。
Note 14 （P。 73）。
I use the well…known phrase； but decline responsibility for the libel
upon Epicurus； whose doctrines ＇111＇ were far less compatible with
existence in a style than those of the Cynics。 If it were steadily
borne in mind that the conception of the 〃flesh〃 as the source of
evil； and the great saying 〃Initium est salutis notitia peccati；〃 are
the property of Epicurus； fewer illusions about Epicureanism would
pass muster for accepted truth。
Note 15 （P。 75）。
The Stoics said that man was a ＇Greek phrase zoon logikon politikon
philallelon＇； or a rational； a political； and an altruistic or
philanthropic animal。 In their view； his higher nature tended to
develop in these three directions； as a plant tends to grow up into
its typical form。 Since； without the introduction of any consideration
of pleasure or pain； whatever thwarted the realization of its type by
the plant might be said to be bad； and whatever helped it good； so
virtue； in the Stoical sense； as the conduct which tended to the
attainment of the rational； political； and philanthropic ideal； was
good in itself； and irrespectively of its emotional concomitants。
Man is an 〃animal sociale communi bono genitum。〃 The safety of society
depends upon practical recognition of the fact。 〃Salva autem esse
societas nisi custodia et amore partium non possit；〃 says Seneca。 （De。
Ira； ii。 31。）
Note 16 （P。 75）。
The importance of the physical doctrine of the Stoics lies in its
clear recognition of the universality ＇112＇ of the law of causation；
with its corollary； the order of nature： the exact form of that order
is an altogether secondary consideration。
Many ingenious persons now appear to consider that the incompatibility
of pantheism； of materialism； and of any doubt about the immortality
oxf the soul； with religion and morality； is to be held as an
axiomatic truth。 I confess that I have a certain difficulty in
accepting this dogma。 For the Stoics were notoriously materialists and
pantheists of the most extreme character； and while no strict Stoic
believed in the eternal duration of the individual soul； some even
denied its persistence after death。 Yet it is equally certain that of
all gentile philosophies； Stoicism exhibits the highest ethical
development； is animated by the most religious spirit； and has exerted
the profoundest influence upon the moral and religious development not
merely of the best men among the Romans； but among the moderns down to
our own day。
Seneca was claimed as a Christian and placed among the saints by the
fathers of the early Christian Church； and the genuineness of a
correspondence between him and the apostle Paul has been hotly
maintained in our own time； by orthodox writers。 That the letters； as
we possess them； are worthless forgeries is obvious； and writers as
wide apart as Baur and Lightfoot agree that the whole story is devoid
of foundation。
The dissertation of the late Bishop of Durham （Epistle to the
Philippians） is particularly worthy of study； apart from this
question； on account of ＇113＇ evidence which it supplies of the
numerous similarities of thought between Seneca and the writer of the
Pauline epistles。 When it is remembered that the writer of the Acts
puts a quotation from Aratus； or Cleanthes； into the mouth of the
apostle； and that Tarsus was a great seat of philosophical and
especially stoical learning （Chrysippus himself was a native of the
adjacent town of Soli）； there is no difficulty in understanding the
origin of these resemblances。 See； on this subject； Sir Alexander
Grant's dissertation in his edition of The Ethics of Aristotle （where
there is an interesting reference to the stoical character of Bishop
Butler's ethics）； the concluding page