good the loss of its own。 The operation of borrowing； however；
involves further work； that is； the labour of sucking； which is a
mechanical operation of much the same nature as breathing。 The child
thus pays for the capital it borrows in labour； but as the value in
work…stuff of the milk obtained is very far greater than the value of
that labour； estimated by the consumption of work…stuff it involves；
the operation yields a large profit to the infant。 The overplus of
food…stuff suffices to increase the child's capital of work…stuff； and
to supply not only the materials for the enlargement of the 〃buildings
and machinery〃 which is expressed by the child's growth； but also the
energy required to put all these materials together； and to carry them
to their proper places。 Thus； throughout the years of infancy； and so
long thereafter as the youth or man is not thrown upon his own
resources； he lives by consuming the vital capital provided by others。
To use a terminology which is more common than appropriate； whatever
work he performs （and he does a good deal； if only in mere locomotion）
is unproductive。
＇152＇ Let us now suppose the child come to man's estate in the
condition of a wandering savage； dependent for his food upon what he
can pick up or catch； after the fashion of the Australian aborigines。
It is plain that the place of mother； as the supplier of vital
capital； is now taken by the fruits； seeds； and roots of plants and by
various kinds of animals。 It is they alone which contain stocks of
those substances which can be converted within the man's organism into
work…stuff； and of the other matters； except air and water； required
to supply the constant consumption of his capital and to keep his
organic machinery going。 In no way does the savage contribute to the
production of these substances。 Whatever labour he bestows upon such
vegetable and animal bodies； on the contrary； is devoted to their
destruction； and it is a mere matter of accident whether a little
labour yields him a great dealas in the case； for example； of a
stranded whale； or whether much labour yields next to nothingas in
times of long…continued drought。 The savage； like the child； borrows
the capital he needs； and； at any rate； intentionally； does nothing
towards repayment； it would plainly be an improper use of the word
〃produce〃 to say that his labour in hunting for the roots； or the
fruits； or the eggs； or the grubs and snakes； which he finds and eats；
〃pro duces〃 or contributes to 〃produce〃 them。 The same thing is true
of more advanced tribes； who ＇153＇ are still merely hunters； such as
the Esquimaux。 They may expend more labour and skill； but it is spent
in destruction。
When we pass from these to men who lead a purely pastoral life； like
the South American Gauchos； or some Asiatic nomads； there is an
important change。 Let us suppose the owner of a flock of sheep to live
on the milk； cheese； and flesh which they yield。 It is obvious that
the flock stands to him in the economic relation of the mother to the
child； inasmuch as it supplies him with food…stuffs competent to make
good the daily and hourly losses of his capital of workstuff。 If we
imagine our sheep…owner to have access to extensive pastures and to be
troubled neither by predacious animals nor by rival shepherds； the
performance of his pastoral functions will hardly involve the
expenditure of any more labour than is needful to provide him with the
exercise required to maintain health。 And this is true； even if we
take into account the trouble originally devoted to the domestication
of the sheep。 It surely would be a most singular pretension for the
shepherd to talk of the flock as the 〃produce〃 of his labour in any
but a very limited sense。 In truth； his labour would have been a mere
accessory of production of very little consequence。 Under the
circumstances supposed； a ram and some ewes； left to themselves for a
few years； would probably generate as large a flock； ＇154＇ and the
superadded labour of the shepherd would have little more effect upon
their production than upon that of the blackberries on the bushes
about the pastures。 For the most part the increment would be
thoroughly unearned； and； if it is a rule of absolute political ethics
that owners have no claim upon 〃betterment〃 brought about
independently of their own labour； then the shepherd would have no
claim to at least nine…tenths of the increase of the flock。
But if the shepherd has no real claim to the title of 〃producer；〃 who
has？ Are the rams and ewes the true 〃producers〃？ Certainly their
title is better if； borrowing from the old terminology of chemistry；
they only claim to be regarded as the 〃proximate principles〃 of
production。 And yet； if strict justice is to be dispensed； even they
are to be regarded rather as collectors and distributors than as
〃producers。〃 For all that they really do is to collect； slightly
modify； and render easily accessible； the vital capital which already
exists in the green herbs on which they feed； but in such a form as to
be practically out of the reach of man。
Thus； from an economic point of view； the sheep are more comparable to
confectioners than to producers。 The usefulness of biscuit lies in the
raw flour of which it is made； but raw flour does not answer as an
article of human diet； and biscuit does。 So the usefulness of mutton
lies mainly in certain chemical compounds which it ＇155＇ contains： the
sheep gets them out of grass； we cannot live on grass； but we can on
mutton。
Now； herbaceous and all other green plants stand alone among
terrestrial natural bodies； in so far as； under the influence of
light； they possess the power to build up； out of the carbonic acid
gas in the atmosphere； water and certain nitrogenous and mineral
salts； those substances which in the animal organism are utilised as
work…stuff。 They are the chief and； for practical purposes； the sole
producers of that vital capital which we have seen to be the necessary
antecedent of every act of labour。 Every green plant is a laboratory
in which； so long as the sun shines upon it； materials furnished by
the mineral world； gases； water； saline compounds； are worked up into
those foodstuffs without which animal life cannot be carried on。 And
since； up to the present time； synthetic chemistry has not advanced so
far as to achieve this feat； the green plant may be said to be the
only living worker whose labour directly results in the production of
that vital capital which is the necessary antecedent of human labour。*
Nor is this statement a paradox involving perpetual motion； because
the energy by which the plant does its work is supplied by the
sunthe primordial capitalist so far as we are concerned。 But ＇156＇
it cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind that sunshine； air；
water； the best soil that is to be found on the surface of the earth；
might co…exist； yet without plants； there is no known agency competent
to generate the so…called 〃protein compounds；〃 by which alone animal
life can be permanently supported。 And not only are plants thus
essential； but； in respect of particular kinds of animals； they must
be plants of a particular nature。 If there were no terrestrial green
plants but； say； cypresses and mosses； pastoral and agricultural life
would be alike impossible； indeed； it is difficult to imagine the
possibility of the existence of any large animal； as the labour
required to get at a sufficiency of the store of food…stuffs；
contained in such plants as these； could hardly extract from them an
equivalent for the waste involved in that expenditure of work。
* It remains to be seen whether the plants which have no
chlorophyll； and flourish in darkness； such as the Fungi； can
live upon purely mineral food。
We are compact of dust and air； from that we set out； and to that
complexion must we come at last。 The plant either directly； or by some
animal intermediary； lends us the capital which enables us to carry on
the business of life； as we flit through the upper world； from the one
term of our journey to the other。 Popularly； no doubt； it is
permissible to speak of the soil as a 〃producer；〃 just as we may talk
of the daily movement of the sun。 But； as I have elsewhere remarked；
propositions which are to bear any deductive strain that may be put
upon them must run the risk of ＇157＇ seeming pedantic； rather than
that of being inaccurate。 And the statement that land； in the sense of
cultivable soil； is a producer； or even one of the essentials of
economic production； is anything but accurate。 The process of
water…culture； in which a plant is not 〃planted〃 in any soil； but is
merely supported in water containing in solution the mineral
ingredients essential to that plant； is now thoroughly understood；
and； if it were worth while； a crop yielding abundant food…stuffs
could be raised on an acre of fresh water； no less than on an acre of
dry land。 In the Arctic regions； again； land has nothing to do with
〃production〃 in the social economy of the Esquimaux； who live on seals
and other marine animals； and might； like Proteus； shepherd the flocks
of Poseidon if they had a mind for pastoral life。 But the seals and
the bears are dependent on other inhabitants of the sea； until；
somewhere in the series； we come to the minute green plants which
float in the ocean； and are the real 〃producers〃 by which the whole of
its vast animal population is supported。* Thus； when we find set forth
as an 〃absolute〃 ＇158＇ truth the statement that the essential factors
in economic production are land； capital and labourwhen this is
offered as an axiom whence all sorts of other important truths may be
deducedit is needful to remember that the assertion is true only
with a qualification。 Undoubtedly 〃vital capital〃 is essential； for；
as we have seen； no human work can be done unless it exists； not even
that internal work of the body which is necessary to passive life。
But； with respect to labour （that is； human labour） I hope to have
left no doubt on the reader's mind that； in regard to production； the
importance of human labour may be so small as to be almost a vanishing
quantity。 Moreover； it i