there is an interesting reference to the stoical character of Bishop
Butler's ethics）； the concluding pages of Dr。 Weygoldt's instructive
little work Die Philosophie der Stoa； and Aubertin's Seneque et Saint
Paul。
It is surprising that a writer of Dr。 Lightfoot's stamp should speak
of Stoicism as a philosophy of 〃despair。〃 Surely； rather； it was a
philosophy of men who； having cast off all illusions； and the
childishness of despair among them； were minded to endure in patience
whatever conditions the cosmic process might create； so long as those
conditions were compatible with the progress towards virtue； which
alone； for them； conferred a worthy object on existence。 There is no
note of despair in the stoical declaration that the perfected 〃wise
man〃 is the equal of Zeus in everything but the duration of his
existence。 And； in my judgment； there is as little pride about it；
often as it serves for the text of discourses on stoical arrogance。
Grant the stoical postulate that there is no good except virtue； grant
that ＇114＇ the perfected wise man is altogether virtuous； in
consequence of being guided in all things by the reason； which is an
effluence of Zeus； and there seems no escape from the stoical
conclusion。
Note 17 （p。 76）。
Our 〃Apathy〃 carries such a different set of connotations from its
Greek original that I have ventured on using the latter as a technical
term。
Note 18 （P。 77）。
Many of the stoical philosophers recommended their disciples to take
an active share in public affairs； and in the Roman world； for several
centuries； the best public men were strongly inclined to Stoicism。
Nevertheless； the logical tendency of Stoicism seems to me to be
fulfilled only in such men as Diogenes and Epictetus。
Note 19 （P。 80）。
〃Criticisms on the Origin of Species；〃 1864。 Collected Essays； vol。 ii。
p。 91。＇1894。＇
Note 20 （P。 81）。
Of course； strictly speaking； social life； and the ethical process in
virtue of which it advances towards perfection； Are part and parcel of
the general process of evolution； just as the gregarious habit of in
＇115＇ numerable plants and animals； which has been of immense
advantage to them； is so。 A hive of bees is an organic polity； a
society in which the part played by each member is determined by
organic necessities。 Queens； workers； and drones are； so to speak；
castes； divided from one another by marked physical barriers。 Among
birds and mammals； societies are formed； of which the bond in many
cases seems to be purely psychological； that is to say； it appears to
depend upon the liking of the individuals for one another's company。
The tendency of individuals to over self…assertion is kept down by
fighting。 Even in these rudimentary forms of society； love and fear
come into play； and enforce a greater or less renunciation of
self…will。 To this extent the general cosmic process begins to be
checked by a rudimentary ethical process； which is； strictly speaking；
part of the former； just as the 〃governor〃 in a steam…engine is part
of the mechanism of the engine。
Note 21 （p。 82）。
See 〃Government： Anarchy or Regimentation；〃 Collected Essays； vol。 i。
pp。 413…418。 It is this form of political philosophy to which I
conceive the epithet of 〃reasoned savagery〃 to be strictly
applicable。＇1894。＇
Note 22 （p。 83）。
〃L'homme n'est qu'un roseau； le plus faible de la nature； mais c'est
un roseau pensant。 Il ne faut ＇116＇ pas que l'univers entier s'arme
pour l'ecraser。 Une vapour； une goutte d'eau； suffit pour le tuer。
Mais quand l'univers l'ecraserait； l'homme serait encore plus noble
que ce qui le tue； parce qu'il sait qu'il muert； et l'avantage que
l'univers a sur lui； l'univers n'en sait rien。〃Pensees de Pascal。
Note 23 （p。 85）。
The use of the word 〃Nature〃 here may be criticised。 Yet the
manifestation of the natural tendencies of men is so profoundly
modified by training that it is hardly too strong。 Consider the
suppression of the sexual instinct between near relations。
Note 24 （p。 86）。
A great proportion of poetry is addressed by the young to the young；
only the great masters of the art are capable of divining； or think it
worth while to enter into； the feelings of retrospective age。 The two
great poets whom we have so lately lost； Tennyson and Browning； have
done this； each in his own inimitable way； the one in the Ulysses；
from which I have borrowed； the other in that wonderful fragment
〃Childe Roland to the dark Tower came。〃
＇147＇
IV。
CAPITALTHE MOTHER OF LABOUR
AN ECONOMICAL PROBLEM DISCUSSED FROM A
PHYSIOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW
＇1890。＇
THE first act of a new…born child is to draw a deep breath。 In fact； it
will never draw a deeper； inasmuch as the passages and chambers of the
lungs； once distended with air； do not empty themselves again； it is
only a fraction of their contents which passes in and out with the
flow and the ebb of the respiratory tide。 Mechanically； this act of
drawing breath； or inspiration； is of the same nature as that by which
the handles of a bellows are separated； in order to fill the bellows
with air； and； in like manner； it involves that expenditure of energy
which we call exertion； or work； or labour。 It is； therefore； no mere
metaphor to say that man is destined to a life of toil： the work of
respiration which began with his first breath ends only with his last；
nor does one born in the purple get off with a lighter task than the
child who first sees light under a hedge。
＇148＇ How is it that the new…born infant is enabled to perform this
first instalment of the sentence of life…long labour which no man may
escape？ Whatever else a child may be； in respect of this particular
question； it is a complicated piece of mechanism； built up out of
materials supplied by its mother； and in the course of such
building…up； provided with a set of motorsthe muscles。 Each of these
muscles contains a stock of substance capable of yielding energy under
certain conditions； one of which is a change of state in the nerve
fibres connected with it。 The powder in a loaded gun is such another
stock of substance capable of yielding energy in consequence of a
change of state in the mechanism of the lock； which intervenes between
the finger of the man who pulls the trigger and the cartridge。 If that
change is brought about； the potential energy of the powder passes
suddenly into actual energy； and does the work of propelling the
bullet。 The powder； therefore； may be appropriately called work…stuff；
not only because it is stuff which is easily made to yield work in the
physical sense； but because a good deal of work in the economical sense
has contributed to its production。 Labour was necessary to collect；
transport； and purify the raw sulphur and saltpetre； to cut wood and
convert it into powdered charcoal； to mix these ingredients in the
right proportions； to give the mixture the proper grain； and so on。
The powder ＇149＇ once formed part of the stock； or capital； of a
powder…maker： and it is not only certain natural bodies which are
collected and stored in the gunpowder； but the labour bestowed on the
operations mentioned may be figuratively said to be incorporated in
it。
In principle； the work…stuff stored in the muscles of the new…born
child is comparable to that stored in the gun…barrel。 The infant is
launched into altogether new surroundings； and these operate through
the mechanism of the nervous machinery； with the result that the
potential energy of some of the work…stuff in the muscles which bring
about inspiration is suddenly converted into actual energy； and this；
operating through the mechanism of the respiratory apparatus； gives
rise to an act of inspiration。 As the bullet is propelled by the
〃going off〃 of the powder； as it might be said that the ribs are
raised and the midriff depressed by the 〃going off〃 of certain
portions of muscular work…stuff。 This work…stuff is part of a stock or
capital of that commodity stored up in the child's organism before
birth； at the expense of the mother； and the mother has made good her
expenditure by drawing upon the capital of food…stuffs which furnished
her daily maintenance。
Under these circumstances； it does not appear to me to be open to doubt
that the primary act of outward labour in the series which necessarily
accompany ＇150＇ the life of man is dependent upon the pre…existence of
a stock of material which is not only of use to him； but which is
disposed in such a manner as to be utilisable with facility。 And I
further imagine that the propriety of the application of the term
'capital' to this stock of useful substance cannot be justly called in
question； inasmuch as it is easy to prove that the essential
constituents of the work…stuff accumulated in the child's muscles have
merely been transferred from the store of food…stuffs； which everybody
admits to be capital； by means of the maternal organism to that of the
child； in which they are again deposited to await use。 Every
subsequent act of labour； in like manner； involves an equivalent
consumption of the child's store of work…stuffits vital capital； and
one of the main objects of the process of breathing is to get rid of
some of the effects of that consumption。 It follows； then； that； even
if no other than the respiratory work were going on in the organism；
the capital of work…stuff； which the child brought with it into the
world； must sooner or later be used up； and the movements of breathing
must come to an end； just as the see…saw of the piston of a
steam…engine stops when the coal in the fireplace has burnt away。
Milk； however； is a stock of materials which essentially consists of
savings from the food…stuffs supplied to the mother。 And these savings
are ＇151＇ in such a physical and chemical condition that the organism
of the child can easily convert them into work…stuff。 That is to say；
by borrowing directly from the vital capital of the mother； indirectly
from the store in the natural bodies accessible to her； it can make
good the loss of its own。 The operation of borrowing； however；
involves further work； that is； the labour of sucking； which is a
me