forty centuries of ink- 第16部分

and　more　free…flowing；　with　a　mistaken　idea

of　improving　them；　are　much　discolored　and　in　every

instance　present　but　slight　indications　of　their　original

condition。



The　question　of　the　character　of　the　paper　employed

during　these　eras；　composed　of　different　kinds

of　fibrous　vegetable　substances；　possesses　some　importance

when　discussing　its　relationship　to　inks。　Many

authors　certify　to　the　manufacture　and　use　of　〃cotton〃

in　the　eleventh；　twelfth　and　later　centuries。

Madan；　however；　in　treating　this　subject；　makes　the

following　comments　which　are　in　line　with　my　own

observations：



〃Paper　has　for　long　been　the　common　substance

for　miscellaneous　purposes　of　ordinary　writing；　and

has　at　all　times　been　formed　exclusively　from　rags

（chiefly　of　linen）　reduced　to　pull）；　poured　out　on　a

frame　in　a　thin　watery　sheet；　and　gradually　dried

and　given　consistence　by　the　action　of　heat。　It

has　been　a　popular　belief；　found　in　every　book　till

1886　（now　entirely　disproved；　but　probably　destined

to　die　hard）；　that　the　common　yellowish　thick

paper；　with　rough　fibrous　edge；　found　especially　in

Greek　MSS。　till　the　fifteenth　century；　was　paper　of

quite　another　sort；　and　made　of　cotton　（charta

bombycna；　bombyx　being　usually　silk；　but　also

used　of　any　fine　fibre　such　as　cotton）。　The　microscope

has　at　last　conclusively　shown　that　these　two

papers　are　simply　two　different　kinds　of　ordinary

linen…rag　paper。〃



De　Vinne　speaking；　of　paper　and　paper…making　says：



〃The　gradual　development　of　paper…making　in

Europe　is　but　imperfectly　presented　through　these

fragmentary　facts。　Paper　may　have　been　made　for

many　years　before　it　found　chroniclers　who　thought

the　manufacture　worthy　of　notice。　The　Spanish

paper…mills　of　Toledo　which　were　at　work　in　the

year　1085；　and　an　ancient　family　of　paper…makers

which　was　honored　with　marked　favor　by　the　king

of　Sicily　in　the　year　1102；　are　carelessly　mentioned

by　contemporary　writers　as　if　paper…making　was　an

old　and　established　business。　It　does　not　appear

that　paper　was　a　novelty　at　a　much　earlier　period。

The　bulls　of　the　popes　of　the　eighth　and　ninth　centuries

were　written　on　cotton　card　or　cotton　paper；

but　no　writer　called　attention　to　this　card；　or　described

it　as　a　new　material。　It　has　been　supposed

that　this　paper　was　made　in　Asia；　but　it　could

have　been　made　in　Europe。　A　paper…like　fabric；

made　from　the　barks　of　trees；　was　used　for　writing

by　the　Longobards　in　the　seventh　century；　and　a

coarse　imitation　of　the　Egyptian　papyrus；　in　the

form　of　a　strong　brown　paper；　had　been　made　by

the　Romans　as　early　as　the　third　century。　The

art　of　compacting　in　a　web　the　macerated　fibres　of

plants　seems　to　have　been　known　and　practised　to

some　extent　in　Southern　Europe　long　before　the

establishment　of　Moorish　paper…mills。



〃The　Moors　brought　to　Spain　and　Sicily　not　an

entirely　new　invention；　but　an　improved　method　of

making　paper；　and　what　was　more　important；　a　culture

and　civilization　that　kept　this　method　in　constant

exercise。　It　was　chiefly　for　the　lack　of　ability

and　lack　of　disposition　to　put　paper　to　proper　use

that　the　earlier　European　knowledge　of　paper…

making　was　so　barren　of　results。　The　art　of　book…

making　as　it　was　then　practised　was　made　subservient

to　the　spirit　of　luxury　more　than　to　the　desire

for　knowledge。　Vellum　was　regarded　by　the　copyist

as　the　only　substance　fit　for　writing　on；　even

when　it　was　so　scarce　that　it　could　be　used　only　for

the　most　expensive　books。　The　card…like　cotton

paper　once　made　by　the　Saracens　was　certainly

known　in　Europe　for　many　years　before　its　utility

was　recognized。　Hallam　says　that　the　use　of　this

cotton　paper　was　by　no　means　general　or　frequent；

except　in　Spain　or　Italy；　and　perhaps　in　the　south

of　France；　until　the　end　of　the　fourteenth　century。

Nor　was　it　much　used　in　Italy　for　books。



〃Paper　came　before　its　time　and　had　to　wait　for

recognition。　It　was　sorely　needed。　The　Egyptian

manufacture　of　papyrus；　which　was　in　a　state　of

decay　in　the　seventh　century；　ceased　entirely　in　the

ninth　or　tenth。　Not　many　books　were　written　during

this　period；　but　there　was　then；　and　for　at　least

three　centuries　afterwards；　an　unsatisfied　demand

for　something　to　write　upon。　Parchment　was　so

scarce　that　reckless　copyists　frequently　resorted　to

the　desperate　expedient　of　effacing　the　writing　on

old　and　lightly　esteemed　manuscripts。　It　was　not

a　difficult　task。　The　writing　ink　then　used　was

usually　made　of　lamp…black；　gum　and　vinegar；　it

it　had　but　a　feeble　encaustic　property；　and　it　did

not　bite　in　or　penetrate　the　parchment。　The　work

of　effacing　this　ink　was　accomplished　by　moistening

the　parchment　with　a　weak　alkaline　solution　and

by　rubbing　it　with　pumice　stone。　This　treatment

did　not　entirely　obliterate　the　writing；　but　made　it

so　indistinct　that　the　parchment　could　be　written

over　the　second　time。　Manuscripts　so　treated　are

now　known　as　palimpsests。　All　the　large　European

public　libraries　have　copies　of　palimpsests；　which　are

melancholy　illustrations　of　the　literary　tastes　of

many　writers　or　bookmakers　during　the　Middle

Ages。　More　convincingly　than　by　argument　they

show　the　utility　of　paper。　Manuscripts　of　the

Gospels；　of　the　Iliad；　and　of　works　of　the　highest

merit；　often　of　great　beauty　and　accuracy；　are

dimly　seen　underneath　stupid　sermons；　and　theological

writings　of　a　nature　so　paltry　that　no　man

living　cares　to　read　them。　In　Some　instances　the

first　writing　has　been　so　thoroughly　scrubbed　out

that　its　meaning　is　irretrievably　lost。



〃Much　as　paper　was　needed；　it　was　not　at　all　popular

with　copyists；　their　prejudice　was　not　altogether

unreasonable；　for　it　was　thick；　coarse；　knotty；　and

in　every　way　unfitted　for　the　display　or　ornamental

penmanship　or　illumination。　The　cheaper　quality；

then　known　as　cotton　paper；　was　especially　objectionable。

It　seems　to　have　been　so　badly　made　as

to　need　governmental　interference。　Frederick　II；

of　Germany；　in　the　year　1221；　foreseeing　evils

that　might　arise　from　bad　paper；　made　a　decree　by

which　he　made　invalid　all　public　documents　that

should　be　put　on　cotton　paper；　and　ordered　them

within　two　years　to　be　transcribed　upon　parchment。

Peter　II；　of　Spain；　in　the　year　1338；　publicly

commanded　the　paper…makers　of　Valencia　and

Xativa　to　make　their　paper　of　a　better　quality　and

equal　to　that　of　an　earlier　period。



〃The　better　quality　of　paper；　now　known　as

linen　paper；　had　the　merits　of　strength；　flexibility；

and　durability　in　a　high　degree；　but　it　was　set　aside

by　the　copyists　because　the　fabric　was　too　thick

and　the　surface　was　too　rough。　The　art　of　calendering

or　polishing　papers　until　they　were　of　a

smooth；　glossy　surface；　which　was　then　practised

by　the　Persians；　was　unknown　to；　or　at　least

unpractised　by；　the　early　European　makers。　The

changes　or　fashion　in　the　selection　of　writing　papers

are　worthy　of　passing　notice。　The　rough

hand…made　papers　so　heartily　despised　by　the

copyists　of　the　thirteenth　century　are　now　preferred

by　neat　penmen　and　skilled　draughtsmen。

The　imitations　of　mediaeval　paper；　thick；　harsh；

and　dingy；　and　showing　the　marks　of　the　wires

upon　which　the　fabric　was　couched；　are　preferred

by　men　of　letters　for　books　and　for　correspondence；

while　highly　polished　modern　plate　papers；　with

surfaces　much　more　glossy　than　any　preparation　of

vellum；　are　now　rejected　by　them　as　finical　and　effeminate。



〃There　is　a　popular　notion　that　the　so…called　inventions

of　paper　and　xylographic　printing　were

gladly　welcomed　by　men　of　letters；　and　that　the

new　fabric　and　the　new　art　were　immediately

pressed　into　service。　The　facts　about　to　be　presented

in　succeeding　chapters　will　lead　to　a　different

conclusion。　We　shall　see　that　the　makers　of

playing　cards　and　of　image　prints　were　the　men

who　first　made　extended　use　of　printing；　and　that

self…taught　and　unprofessional　copyists　were　the

men　who　gave　encouragement　to　the　manufacture

of　paper。　The　more　liberal　use　of　paper　at　the

beginning　of　the　fifteenth　century　by　this　newly…

created　class　of　readers　and　book…buyers　marks　the

period　of　transition　and　of　mental　and　mechanical

development　for　which　the　crude　arts　of　paper…

making　and　of　black　printing　had　been　waiting　for

centuries。　We　shall　also　see　that　if　paper　had　been

ever　so　cheap　and　common　during　the　Middle　Ages；

it　would　have　worked　no　changes　in　education　or

literature；　it　could　not　have　been　used　by　the　people；

for　they　were　too　illiterate；　it　would　not　have

been　used　by　the　professional　copyists；　for　they

preferred　vellum　and　despised　the　substitute。



〃The　scarcity　of　vellum　in　one　century；　and　its

abundance　in　another；　are　indicated　by　the　size

of　written　papers　during　the　same　periods。　Before

the　sixth　century；　legal　documents　were　generally

written　upon　one　side　only；　in　the　tenth　century

the　practice　of　writing　upon　both　sides　of　the　vellum

became　common。　During　the　thirteenth　century

valuable　documents　were　often　written　upon　strips

two　inches　wide　and　but　three　and　a　half　inches

long。　At　the　end　of　the　fourteenth　century　these

strips　went　out　of　fashion。　The　more　general　use

of　paper　had　diminished　the　demand　for　vellum　and

increased　the　supply。　In　the　fifteenth　century；

legal　documents　on　rolls　of　sewed　vellum　twenty

feet　in　length　were　not　uncommon。　All　the　valuable

books　of　the　fourteenth　century　were　written　on

vellum。　In　the　library　of　the　Louvre　the　manuscripts

on　paper；　compared　to　those　on　vellum；　were

as　one　to　twenty…eight；　in　the　library　of　the　Dukes

of　Burgundy；　one…fifth　of　the　books　were　of　paper。

The　increase　in　the　proportion　of　paper　books　is　a

fair　indication　of　the　increasing　popularity　of　paper；

but　it　is　obvious　that　vellum　was　even　then　considered

as　the　more　suitable　substance　for　a　book　of　value。〃



The　curious　contract