ulated immense sums of money in gold and silver coin； which had the effect of driving out of circulation the wretched paper currency which had till then prevailed。 Immense quantities of British and French goods were soon imported： our people imbibed a taste for foreign fashions and luxury； and in the course of two or three years； from the close of the war； such an entire change had taken place in the habits and manners of our inhabitants； that it almost appeared as if we had suddenly become a different nation。 The staid and sober habits of our ancestors； with their plain home…manufactured clothing； were suddenly laid aside； and European goods of fine quality adopted in their stead。 Fine rues； powdered heads； silks and scarlets； decorated the men； while the most costly silks； satins； chintzes； calicoes； muslins； etc。； etc。； decorated our females。 Nor was their diet less expensive； for superb plate； foreign spirits； wines； etc。； etc。； sparkled on the sideboards of many farmers。 The natural result of this change of the habits and customs of the peoplethis aping of European manners and morals； was to suddenly drain our country of its circulating specie； and as a necessary consequence； the people ran in debt； times became difficult； and money hard to raise。* * Samuel Kercheval； 〃History of the Valley of Virginia；〃 1833； pp。 199…200。
The situation was serious； and yet it was not as dangerous or even as critical as it has generally been represented； because the fundamental bases of American prosperity were untouched。 The way by which Americans could meet the emergency and recover from the hard times was fairly evident first to economize； and then to find new outlets for their industrial energies。 But the process of adjustment was slow and painful。 There were not a few persons in the United States who were even disposed to regret that Americans were not safely under British protection and prospering with Great Britain； instead of suffering in political isolation。
CHAPTER III。 THE CONFEDERATION When peace came in 1783 there were in the United States approximately three million people； who were spread over the whole Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia and back into the interior as far as the Alleghany Mountains； and a relatively small number of settlers had crossed the mountain barrier。 About twenty per cent of the population； or some six hundred thousand； were negro slaves。 There was also a large alien element of foreign birth or descent； poor when they arrived in America； and； although they had been able to raise themselves to a position of comparative comfort； life among them was still crude and rough。 Many of the people were poorly educated and lacking in cultivation and refinement and in a knowledge of the usages of good society。 Not only were they looked down upon by other nations of the world； there was within the United States itself a relatively small upper class inclined to regard the mass of the people as of an inferior order。 Thus； while forces were at work favorable to democracy； the gentry remained in control of affairs after the Revolution； although their numbers were reduced by the emigration of the Loyalists and their power was lessened。 The explanation of this aristocratic control may be found in the fact that the generation of the Revolution had been accustomed to monarchy and to an upper class and that the people were wont to take their ideas and to accept suggestions from their betters without question or murmur。 This deferential attitude is attested by the indifference of citizens to the right of voting。 In our own day； before the great extension of woman suffrage； the number of persons voting approximated twenty per cent of the population； but after the Revolution less than five per cent of the white population voted。 There were many limitations upon the exercise of the suffrage； but the small number of voters was only partially due to these restrictions； for in later years； without any radical change in suffrage qualifications； the proportion of citizens who voted steadily increased。 The fact is that many of the people did not care to vote。 Why should they； when they were only registering the will or the wishes of their superiors？ But among the relatively small number who constituted the governing class there was a high standard of intelligence。 Popular magazines were unheard of and newspapers were infrequent； so that men depended largely upon correspondence and personal intercourse for the interchange of ideas。 There was time； however； for careful reading of the few available books； there was time for thought； for writing； for discussion； and for social intercourse。 It hardly seems too much to say； therefore； that there was seldom； if ever； a people…certainly never a people scattered over so wide a territory…who knew so much about government as did this controlling element of the people of the United States。 The practical character； as well as the political genius； of the Americans was never shown to better advantage than at the outbreak of the Revolution； when the quarrel with the mother country was manifesting itself in the conflict between the Governors； and other appointed agents of the Crown； and the popularly elected houses of the colonial legislatures。 When the Crown resorted to dissolving the legislatures； the revolting colonists kept up and observed the forms of government。 When the legislature was prevented from meeting； the members would come together and call themselves a congress or a convention； and； instead of adopting laws or orders； would issue what were really nothing more than recommendations； but which they expected would be obeyed by their supporters。 To enforce these recommendations extra…legal committees； generally backed by public opinion and sometimes concretely supported by an organized 〃mob；〃 would meet in towns and counties and would be often effectively centralized where the opponents of the British policy were in control。 In several of the colonies the want of orderly government became so serious that； in 1775； the Continental Congress advised them to form temporary governments until the trouble with Great Britain had been settled。 When independence was declared Congress recommended to all the States that they should adopt governments of their own。 In accordance with that recommendation； in the course of a very few years each State established an independent government and adopted a written constitution。 It was a time when men believed in the social contract or the 〃compact theory of the state；〃 that states originated through agreement； as the case might be； between king and nobles； between king and people； or among the people themselves。 In support of this doctrine no less an authority than the Bible was often quoted； such a passage for example as II Samuel v； 3： 〃So all the elders of Israel came to the King to Hebron； and King David made a covenant with them in Hebron before the Lord； and they anointed David King over Israel。〃 As a philosophical speculation to explain why people were governed or consented to be governed； this theory went back at least to the Greeks； and doubtless much earlier； and； though of some significance in medieval thought； it became of greater importance in British political philosophy； especially through the works of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke。 A very practical application of the compact theory was made in the English Revolution of 1688； when in order to avoid the embarrassment of deposing the king； the convention of the Parliament adopted the resolution： 〃That King James the Second； having endeavored to subvert the Constitution of the Kingdom； by breaking the original Contract between King and People； and having； by the advice of Jesuits； and other wicked persons； violated the fundamental Laws； and withdrawn himself out of this Kingdom； has abdicated the Government； and that the throne is hereby vacant。〃 These theories were developed by Jean Jacques Rousseau in his 〃Contrat Social〃a book so attractively written that it eclipsed all other works upon the subject and resulted in his being regarded as the author of the doctrineand through him they spread all over Europe。 Conditions in America did more than lend color to pale speculation； they seemed to take this hypothesis out of the realm of theory and to give it practical application。 What happened when men went into the wilderness to live？ The Pilgrim Fathers on board the Mayflower entered into an agreement which was signed by the heads of families who took part in the enterprise： 〃We； whose names are underwritten 。 。 。 Do by these presents； solemnly and mutually； in the Presence of God and one another； covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil Body Politick。〃 Other colonies； especially in New England； with this example before them of a social contract entered into similar compacts or 〃plantation covenants；〃 as they were called。 But the colonists were also accustomed to having written charters granted which continued for a time at least to mark the extent of governmental powers。 Through this intermingling of theory and practice it was the most natural thing in the world； when Americans came to form their new State Governments； that they should provide written instruments framed by their own representatives； which not only bound them to be governed in this way but also placed limitations upon the governing bodies。 As the first great series of written constitutions； these frames of government attracted wide attention。 Congress printed a set for general distribution； and numerous editions were circulated both at home and abroad。 The constitutions were brief documents； varying from one thousand to twelve thousand words in length； which established the framework of the governmental machinery。 Most of them； before proceeding to practical working details； enunciated a series of general principles upon the subject of government and political morality in what were called declarations or bills of rights。 The character of these declarations may be gathered from the following excerpts： 〃That all men are by nature equally free and independent； and have certain inherent rights； 。 。 。 the enjoyment of life and liberty； with the means of acquiring and possessing property； and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safet