with the means of acquiring and possessing property； and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety。 〃That no man； or set of men； are entitled to exclusive or separate emoluments or privileges from the community； but in consideration of public services。 〃The body politic is formed by a voluntary association of individuals； it is a social compact by which the whole people covenants with each citizen and each citizen with the whole people that all shall be governed by certain laws for the common good。 〃That all power of suspending laws； or the execution of laws； by any authority； without consent of the representatives of the people； is injurious to their rights； and ought not to be exercised。 〃That general warrants； 。 。 。 are grievous and oppressive； and ought not to be granted。 〃All penalties ought to be proportioned to the nature of the offence。 〃That sanguinary laws ought to be avoided； as far as is consistent with the safety of the State； and no law； to inflict cruel and unusual pains and penalties； ought to be made in any case； or at any time hereafter。 〃No magistrate or court of law shall demand excessive bail or sureties； impose excessive fines 。 。 。 。 〃Every individual has a natural and unalienable right to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience； and reason； 。 。 。 〃That the freedom of the press is one of the great bulwarks of liberty； and can never be restrained but by despotic governments。〃 It will be perceived at once that these are but variations of the English Declaration of Rights of 1689； which indeed was consciously followed as a model； and yet there is a world…wide difference between the English model and these American copies。 The earlier document enunciated the rights of English subjects； the recent infringement of which made it desirable that they should be reasserted in convincing form。 The American documents asserted rights which the colonists generally had enjoyed and which they declared to be 〃governing principles for all peoples in all future times。〃 But the greater significance of these State Constitutions is to be found in their quality as working instruments of government。 There was indeed little difference between the old colonial and the new State Governments。 The inhabitants of each of the Thirteen States had been accustomed to a large measure of self…government； and when they took matters into their own hands they were not disposed to make any radical changes in the forms to which they had become accustomed。 Accordingly the State Governments that were adopted simply continued a framework of government almost identical with that of colonial times。 To be sure； the Governor and other appointed officials were now elected either by the people or the legislature； and so were ultimately responsible to the electors instead of to the Crown； and other changes were made which in the long run might prove of far…reaching and even of vital significance； and yet the machinery of government seemed the same as that to which the people were already accustomed。 The average man was conscious of no difference at all in the working of the Government under the new order。 In fact； in Connecticut and Rhode Island； the most democratic of all the colonies； where the people had been privileged to elect their own governors； as well as legislatures； no change whatever was necessary and the old charters were continued as State Constitutions down to 1818 and 1842； respectively。 To one who has been accustomed to believe that the separation from a monarchical government meant the establishment of democracy； a reading of these first State Constitutions is likely to cause a rude shock。 A shrewd English observer； traveling a generation later in the United States； went to the root of the whole matter in remarking of the Americans that； 〃When their independence was achieved their mental condition was not instantly changed。 Their deference for rank and for judicial and legislative authority continued nearly unimpaired。〃* They might declare that 〃all men are created equal；〃 and bills of rights might assert that government rested upon the consent of the governed； but these constitutions carefully provided that such consent should come from property owners； and； in many of the States； from religious believers and even followers of the Christian faith。 〃The man of small means might vote； but none save well…to…do Christians could legislate； and in many states none but a rich Christian could be a governor。〃** In South Carolina； for example； a freehold of 10；000 pounds currency was required of the Governor； Lieutenant Governor； and members of A he Council； 2；000 pounds of the members of the Senate； and； while every elector was eligible to the House of Representatives； he had to acknowledge the being of a God and to believe in a future state of rewards and punishments； as well as to hold 〃a freehold at least of fifty acres of land； or a town lot。〃 * George Combe； 〃Tour of the United States；〃 vol。 I； p。 205。 ** McMaster； 〃Acquisition of Industrial； Popular； and Political Rights of Man in America；〃 p。 20。
It was government by a property…owning class； but in comparison with other countries this class represented a fairly large and increasing proportion of the population。 In America the opportunity of becoming a property…owner was open to every one； or； as that phrase would then have been understood； to most white men。 This system of class control is illustrated by the fact that； with the exception of Massachusetts； the new State Constitutions were never submitted to the people for approval。 The democratic sympathizer of today is inclined to point to those first State Governments as a continuance of the old order。 But to the conservative of that time it seemed as if radical and revolutionary changes were taking place。 The bills of rights declared； 〃That no men； or set of men； are entitled to exclusive or separate emoluments or privileges from the community； but in consideration of public services。〃 Property qualifications and other restrictions on officeholding and the exercise of the suffrage were lessened。 Four States declared in their constitutions against the entailment of estates； and primogeniture was abolished in aristocratic Virginia。 There was a fairly complete abolition of all vestiges of feudal tenure in the holding of land； so that it may be said that in this period full ownership of property was established。 The further separation of church and state was also carried out。 Certainly leveling influences were at work； and the people as a whole had moved one step farther in the direction of equality and democracy； and it was well that the Revolution was not any more radical and revolutionary than it was。 The change was gradual and therefore more lasting。 One finds readily enough contemporary statements to the effect that； 〃Although there are no nobles in America； there is a class of men denominated 'gentlemen；' who； by reason of their wealth； their talents； their education； their families； or the offices they hold； aspire to a preeminence；〃 but； the same observer adds； this is something which 〃the people refuse to grant them。〃 Another contemporary contributes the observation that there was not so much respect paid to gentlemen of rank as there should be； and that the lower orders of people behave as if they were on a footing of equality with them。 Whether the State Constitutions are to be regarded as property…conserving； aristocratic instruments； or as progressive documents； depends upon the point of view。 And so it is with the spirit of union or of nationality in the United States。 One student emphasizes the fact of there being 〃thirteen independent republics differing 。 。 。 widely in climate； in soil； in occupation； in everything which makes up the social and economic life of the people〃； while another sees 〃the United States a nation。〃 There is something to be said for both sides； and doubtless the truth lies between them； for there were forces making for disintegration as well as for unification。 To the student of the present day； however； the latter seem to have been the stronger and more important； although the possibility was never absent that the thirteen States would go their separate ways。 There are few things so potent as a common danger to bring discordant elements into working harmony。 Several times in the century and a half of their existence； when the colonies found themselves threatened by their enemies； they had united； or at least made an effort to unite； for mutual help。 The New England Confederation of 1643 was organized primarily for protection against the Indians and incidentally against the Dutch and French。 Whenever trouble threatened with any of the European powers or with the Indiansand that was frequentlya plan would be broached for getting the colonies to combine their efforts； sometimes for the immediate necessity and sometimes for a broader purpose。 The best known of these plans was that presented to the Albany Congress of 1754； which had been called to make effective preparation for the inevitable struggle with the French and Indians。 The beginning of the troubles which culminated in the final breach with Great Britain had quickly brought united action in the form of the Stamp Act Congress of 1765； in the Committees of Correspondence； and then in the Continental Congress。 It was not merely that the leaven of the Revolution was already working to bring about the freer interchange of ideas； instinct and experience led the colonies to united action。 The very day that the Continental Congress appointed a committee to frame a declaration of independence； another committee was ordered to prepare articles of union。 A month later； as soon as the Declaration of Independence had been adopted； this second committee； of which John Dickinson of Pennsylvania was chairman； presented to Congress a report in the form of Articles of Confederation。 Although the outbreak of fighting made some sort of united action imperative； this plan of union was subjected to debate intermittently for over sixteen months and even after being adopted by Congress； toward the end of 1777； it was not ratified by the States until March； 1781； when the war was already drawing to a close。 The exigencies of the hour forced Congress； without a