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influence　their　rising　or　falling；　&c。　without　thereby　taking　into



account　the　political　circumstances　of　the　nation。　Clearly；



however；　these　matters　appertain　as　much　to　private　economy　as　to



the　economy　of　whole　nations。　We　have　merely　to　consider　the



history　of　Venice；　of　the　Hanseatic　League；　of　Portugal；　Holland；



and　England；　in　order　to　perceive　what　reciprocal　influence



material　wealth　and　political　power　exercise　on　each　other。



　　　　The　school　also　always　falls　into　the　strangest　inconsistencies



whenever　this　reciprocal　influence　forces　itself　on　their



consideration。　Let　us　here　only　call　to　mind　the　remarkable　dictum



of　Adam　Smith　on　the　English　Navigation　Laws。（3*）



　　　　The　popular　school；　inasmuch　as　it　does　not　duly　consider　the



nature　of　the　powers　of　production；　and　does　not　take　into　account



the　conditions　of　nations　in　their　aggregate；　disregards　especially



the　importance　of　developing　in　an　equal　ratio　agriculture；



manufactures　and　commerce；　political　power　and　internal　wealth；　and



disregards　especially　the　value　of　a　manufacturing　power　belonging



specially　to　the　nation　and　fully　developed　in　all　its　branches。　It



commits　the　error　of　placing　manufacturing　power　in　the　same



category　with　agricultural　power；　and　of　speaking　of　labour；



natural　power；　capital；　&c。　in　general　terms　without　considering



the　differences　which　exist　between　them。　It　does　not　perceive　that



between　a　State　devoted　merely　to　agriculture　and　a　State



possessing　both　agriculture　and　manufactures；　a　much　greater



difference　exists　than　between　a　pastoral　State　and　an　agricultural



one。　In　a　condition　of　merely　agricultural　industry；　caprice　and



slavery；　superstition　and　ignorance；　want　of　means　of　culture；　of



trade；　and　of　transport；　poverty　and　political　weakness　exist。　In



the　merely　agricultural　State　only　the　least　portion　of　the　mental



and　bodily　powers　existing　in　the　nation　is　awakened　and　developed；



and　only　the　least　part　of　the　powers　and　resources　placed　by



nature　at　its　disposal　can　be　made　use　of；　while　little　or　no



capital　can　be　accumulated。



　　　　Let　us　compare　Poland　with　England：　both　nations　at　one　time



were　in　the　same　stage　of　culture；　and　now　what　a　difference。



Manufactories　and　manufactures　are　the　mothers　and　children　of



municipal　liberty；　of　intelligence；　of　the　arts　and　sciences；　of



internal　and　external　commerce；　of　navigation　and　improvements　in



transport；　of　civilisation　and　political　power。　They　are　the　chief



means　of　liberating　agriculture　from　its　chains；　and　of　elevating



it　to　a　commercial　character　and　to　a　degree　of　art　and　science；　by



which　the　rents；　farming　profits；　and　wages　are　increased；　and



greater　value　is　given　to　landed　property。　The　popular　school　has



attributed　this　civilising　power　to　foreign　trade；　but　in　that　it



has　confounded　the　mere　exchanger　with　the　originator。　Foreign



manufactures　furnish　the　goods　for　the　foreign　trade；　which　the



latter　conveys　to　us；　and　which　occasion　consumption　of　products



and　raw　materials　which　we　give　in　exchange　for　the　goods　in　lieu



of　money　payments。



　　　　If；　however；　trade　in　the　manufactures　of　far　distant　lands



exercises　admittedly　so　beneficial　an　influence　on　our　agricultural



industry；　how　much　more　beneficial　must　the　influence　be　of　those



manufactures　which　are　bound　up　with　us　locally；　commercially；　and



politically；　which　not　only　take　from　us　a　small　portion；　but　the



largest　portion　of　their　requirements　of　food　and　of　raw　materials；



which　are　not　made　dearer　to　us　by　great　costs　of　transport；　our



trade　in　which　cannot　be　interrupted　by　the　chance　of　foreign



manufacturing　nations　learning　to　supply　their　own　wants



themselves；　or　by　wars　and　prohibitory　import　duties？



　　　　We　now　see　into　what　extraordinary　mistakes　and　contradictions



the　popular　school　has　fallen　in　making　material　wealth　or　value　of



exchange　the　sole　object　of　its　investigations；　and　by　regarding



mere　bodily　labour　as　the　sole　productive　power。



　　　　The　man　who　breeds　pigs　is；　according　to　this　school；　a



productive　member　of　the　community；　but　he　who　educates　men　is　a



mere　non…productive。　The　maker　of　bagpipes　or　jews…harps　for　sale



is　a　productive；　while　the　great　composers　and　virtuosos　are



non…productive　simply　because　that　which　they　play　cannot　be



brought　into　the　market。　The　physician　who　saves　the　lives　of　his



patients　does　not　belong　to　the　productive　class；　but　on　the



contrary　the　chemist's　boy　does　so；　although　the　values　of　exchange



（viz。　the　pills）　which　he　produces　may　exist　only　for　a　few　minutes



before　they　pass　into　a　valueless　condition。　A　Newton；　a　Watt；　or



a　Kepler　is　not　so　productive　as　a　donkey；　a　horse；　or　a　draught…ox



（a　class　of　labourers　who　have　been　recently　introduced　by



M'Culloch　into　the　series　of　the　productive　members　of　human



society）。



　　　　We　must　not　believe　that　J。　B。　Say　has　remedied　this　defect　in



the　doctrine　of　Adam　Smith　by　his　fiction　of　'immaterial　goods'　or



products；　he　has　thu　s　merely　somewhat　varnished　over　the　folly　of



its　results；　but　not　raised　it　out　of　its　intrinsic　absurdity。　The



mental　（immaterial）　producers　are　merely　productive；　according　to



his　views；　because　they　are　remunerated　with　values　of　exchange；



and　because　their　attainments　have　been　obtained　by　sacrificing



values　of　exchange；　and　not　because　they　produce　productive



powers。（4*）　They　merely　seem　to　him　an　accumulated　capital。



M'Culloch　goes　still　further；　he　says　that　man　is　as　much　a　product



of　labour　as　the　machine　which　he　produces；　and　it　appears　to　him



that　in　all　economical　investigations　he　must　be　regarded　from　this



point　of　view。　He　thinks　that　Smith　comprehended　the　correctness　of



this　principle；　only　he　did　not　deduce　the　correct　conclusion　from



it。　Among　other　things　he　draws　the　conclusion　that　eating　and



drinking　are　productive　occupations。　Thomas　Cooper　values　a　clever



American　lawyer　at　3；000　dollars；　which　is　about　three　times　as



much　as　the　value　of　a　strong　slave。



　　　　The　errors　and　contradictions　of　the　prevailing　school　to　which



we　have　drawn　attention；　can　be　easily　corrected　from　the



standpoint　of　the　theory　of　the　productive　powers。　Certainly　those



who　fatten　pigs　or　prepare　pills　are　productive；　but　the



instructors　of　youths　and　of　adults；　virtuosos；　musicians；



physicians；　judges；　and　administrators；　are　productive　in　a　much



higher　degree。　The　former　produce　values　of　exchange；　and　the



latter　productive　powers；　some　by　enabling　the　future　generation　to



become　producers；　others　by　furthering　the　morality　and　religious



character　of　the　present　generation；　a　third　by　ennobling　and



raising　the　powers　of　the　human　wind；　a　fourth　by　preserving　the



productive　powers　of　his　patients；　a　fifth　by　rendering　human



rights　and　justice　secure；　a　sixth　by　constituting　and　protecting



public　security；　a　seventh　by　his　art　and　by　the　enjoyment　which　it



occasions　fitting　men　the　better　to　produce　values　of　exchange。　In



the　doctrine　of　mere　values；　these　producers　of　the　productive



powers　can　of　course　only　be　taken　into　consideration　so　far　as



their　services　are　rewarded　by　values　of　exchange；　and　this　manner



of　regarding　their　services　may　in　some　instances　have　its



practical　use；　as　e。g。　in　the　doctrine　of　public　taxes；　inasmuch　as



these　have　to　be　satisfied　by　values　of　exchange。　But　whenever　our



consideration　is　given　to　the　nation　（as　a　whole　and　in　its



international　relations）　it　is　utterly　insufficient；　and　leads　to



a　series　of　narrow…minded　and　false　views。



　　　　The　prosperity　of　a　nation　is　not；　as　Say　believes；　greater　in



the　proportion　in　which　it　has　amassed　more　wealth　（i。e。　values　of



exchange）；　but　in　the　proportion　in　which　it　has　more　developed　its



powers　of　production。　Although　laws　and　public　institutions　do　not



produce　immediate　values；　they　nevertheless　produce　productive



powers；　and　Say　is　mistaken　if　he　maintains　that　nations　have　been



enabled　to　become　wealthy　under　all　forms　of　government；　and　that



by　weans　of　laws　no　wealth　can　be　created。　The　foreign　trade　of　a



nation　must　not　be　estimated　in　the　way　in　which　individual



merchants　judge　it；　solely　and　only　according　to　the　theory　of



values　（i。e。　by　regarding　merely　the　gain　at　any　particular　moment



of　some　material　advantage）；　the　nation　is　bound　to　keep　steadily



in　view　all　these　conditions　on　which　its　present　and　future



existence；　prosperity；　and　power　depend。



　　　　The　nation　must　sacrifice　and　give　up　a　measure　of　material



property　in　order　to　gain　culture；　skill；　and　powers　of　united



production；　it　must　sacrifice　some　present　advantages　in　order　to



insure　to　itself　future　ones。　If；　therefore；　a　manufacturing　power



developed　in　all　its　branches　forms　a　fundamental　condition　of　all



higher　advances　in　civilisation；　material　prosperity；　and　political



power　in　every　nation　（a　fact　which；　we　think；　we　have　proved　from



history）；　if　it　be　true　（as　we　believe　we　can　prove）　that　in　the



present　conditions　of　the　world　a　new　unprotected　manufacturing



power　cannot　possibly　be　raised　up　under　free　competition　with　a



power　which　has　long　since　grown　in　strength　and　is　protected　on



its　own　territory；　how　can　anyone　possibly　undertake　to　prove　by



arguments　only　based　on　the　mere　theory　of　values；　that　a　nation



ought　to　buy　its　goods　like　individual　merchants；　at　places　where



they　are　to　be　had　the　cheapest　　that