time； and then stop： when does it stop？ When it ceases to possess
individuality。 If a similar change should befall the nations of
Europe； it will not be in exactly the same shape： the despotism of
custom with which these nations are threatened is not precisely
stationariness。 It proscribes singularity； but it does not preclude
change； provided all change together。 We have discarded the fixed
costumes of our forefathers； every one must still dress like other
people； but the fashion may change once or twice a year。 We thus
take care that when there is a change； it shall be for change's
sake； and not from any idea of beauty or convenience； for the same
idea of beauty or convenience would not strike all the world at the
same moment； and be simultaneously thrown aside by all at another
moment。 But we are progressive as well as changeable： we continually
make new inventions in mechanical things； and keep them until they are
again superseded by better； we are eager for improvement in
politics； in education； even in morals； though in this last our idea
of improvement chiefly consists in persuading or forcing other
people to be as good as ourselves。 It is not progress that we object
to； on the contrary； we flatter ourselves that we are the most
progressive people who ever lived。 It is individuality that we war
against： we should think we had done wonders if we had made
ourselves all alike； forgetting that the unlikeness of one person to
another is generally the first thing which draws the attention of
either to the imperfection of his own type； and the superiority of
another； or the possibility； by combining the advantages of both； of
producing something better than either。 We have a warning example in
China… a nation of much talent； and； in some respects； even wisdom；
owing to the rare good fortune of having been provided at an early
period with a particularly good set of customs； the work； in some
measure； of men to whom even the most enlightened European must
accord； under certain limitations； the title of sages and
philosophers。 They are remarkable； too； in the excellence of their
apparatus for impressing； as far as possible； the best wisdom they
possess upon every mind in the community； and securing that those
who have appropriated most of it shall occupy the posts of honour
and power。 Surely the people who did this have discovered the secret
of human progressiveness； and must have kept themselves steadily at
the head of the movement of the world。 On the contrary； they have
become stationary… have remained so for thousands of years； and if
they are ever to be farther improved； it must be by foreigners。 They
have succeeded beyond all hope in what English philanthropists are so
industriously working at… in making a people all alike； all governing
their thoughts and conduct by the same maxims and rules； and these are
the fruits。 The modern regime of public opinion is； in an
unorganised form； what the Chinese educational and political systems
are in an organised； and unless individuality shall be able
successfully to assert itself against this yoke； Europe；
notwithstanding its noble antecedents and its professed
Christianity； will tend to become another China。
What is it that has hitherto preserved Europe from this lot？ What
has made the European family of nations an improving； instead of a
stationary portion of mankind？ Not any superior excellence in them；
which； when it exists； exists as the effect not as the cause； but
their remarkable diversity of character and culture。 Individuals；
classes； nations； have been extremely unlike one another： they have
struck out a great variety of paths； each leading to something
valuable； and although at every period those who travelled in
different paths have been intolerant of one another； and each would
have thought it an excellent thing if all the rest could have been
compelled to travel his road； their attempts to thwart each other's
development have rarely had any permanent success； and each has in
time endured to receive the good which the others have offered。 Europe
is； in my judgment； wholly indebted to this plurality of paths for its
progressive and many…sided development。 But it already begins to
possess this benefit in a considerably less degree。 It is decidedly
advancing towards the Chinese ideal of making all people alike。 M。
de Tocqueville； in his last important work； remarks how much more
the Frenchmen of the present day resemble one another than did those
even of the last generation。 The same remark might be made of
Englishmen in a far greater degree。
In a passage already quoted from Wilhelm von Humboldt； he points out
two things as necessary conditions of human development； because
necessary to render people unlike one another； namely； freedom； and
variety of situations。 The second of these two conditions is in this
country every day diminishing。 The circumstances which surround
different classes and individuals； and shape their characters； are
daily becoming more assimilated。 Formerly different ranks； different
neighbourhoods； different trades and professions； lived in what
might be called different worlds； at present to a great degree in
the same。 Comparatively speaking； they now read the same things；
listen to the same things； see the same things； go to the same places；
have their hopes and fears directed to the same objects； have the same
rights and liberties； and the same means of asserting them。 Great as
are the differences of position which remain； they are nothing to
those which have ceased。 And the assimilation is still proceeding。 All
the political changes of the age promote it； since they all tend to
raise the low and to lower the high。 Every extension of education
promotes it； because education brings people under common
influences； and gives them access to the general stock of facts and
sentiments。 Improvement in the means of communication promotes it；
by bringing the inhabitants of distant places into personal contact；
and keeping up a rapid flow of changes of residence between one
place and another。 The increase of commerce and manufactures
promotes it； by diffusing more widely the advantages of easy
circumstances； and opening all objects of ambition； even the
highest； to general competition； whereby the desire of rising
becomes no longer the character of a particular class； but of all
classes。 A more powerful agency than even all these； in bringing about
a general similarity among mankind； is the complete establishment；
in this and other free countries； of the ascendancy of public
opinion in the State。 As the various social eminences which enabled
persons entrenched on them to disregard the opinion of the multitude
gradually become levelled； as the very idea of resisting the will of
the public； when it is positively known that they have a will；
disappears more and more from the minds of practical politicians；
there ceases to be any social support for nonconformity… any
substantive power in society which； itself opposed to the ascendancy
of numbers； is interested in taking under its protection opinions
and tendencies at variance with those of the public。
The combination of all these causes forms so great a mass of
influences hostile to Individuality； that it is not easy to see how it
can stand its ground。 It will do so with increasing difficulty； unless
the intelligent part of the public can be made to feel its value… to
see that it is good there should be differences； even though not for
the better； even though； as it may appear to them； some should be
for the worse。 If the claims of Individuality are ever to be asserted；
the time is now； while much is still wanting to complete the
enforced assimilation。 It is only in the earlier stages that any stand
can be successfully made against the encroachment。 The demand that all
other people shall resemble ourselves grows by what it feeds on。 If
resistance waits till life is reduced nearly to one uniform type；
all deviations from that type will come to be considered impious；
immoral； even monstrous and contrary to nature。 Mankind speedily
become unable to conceive diversity； when they have been for some time
unaccustomed to see it。
Chapter 4。
Of the Limits to the Authority of Society over the Individual。
WHAT； THEN； is the rightful limit to the sovereignty of the
individual over himself？ Where does the authority of society begin？
How much of human life should be assigned to individuality； and how
much to society？
Each will receive its proper share； if each has that which more
particularly concerns it。 To individuality should belong the part of
life in which it is chiefly the individual that is interested； to
society； the part which chiefly interests society。
Though society is not founded on a contract； and though no good
purpose is answered by inventing a contract in order to deduce
social obligations from it； every one who receives the protection of
society owes a return for the benefit； and the fact of living in
society renders it indispensable that each should be bound to
observe a certain line of conduct towards the rest。 This conduct
consists； first； in not injuring the interests of one another； or
rather certain interests； which； either by express legal provision
or by tacit understanding； ought to be considered as rights； and
secondly； in each person's bearing his share （to be fixed on some
equitable principle） of the labours and sacrifices incurred for
defending the society or its members from injury and molestation。
These conditions society is justified in en