plains； and meadows； but where the seasons do not change much there
the country is the most even； and； if one will consider it； so is it
also with regard to the inhabitants； for the nature of some is like to
a country covered with trees and well watered； of some； to a thin soil
deficient in water； of others； to fenny and marshy places； and of some
again； to a plain of bare and parched land。 For the seasons which
modify their natural frame of body are varied； and the greater the
varieties of them the greater also will be the differences of their
shapes。
14。 I will pass over the smaller differences among the nations；
but will now treat of such as are great either from nature； or custom；
and； first； concerning the Macrocephali。 There is no other race of men
which have heads in the least resembling theirs。 At first； usage was
the principal cause of the length of their head； but now nature
cooperates with usage。 They think those the most noble who have the
longest heads。 It is thus with regard to the usage： immediately
after the child is born； and while its head is still tender； they
fashion it with their hands； and constrain it to assume a lengthened
shape by applying bandages and other suitable contrivances whereby the
spherical form of the head is destroyed； and it is made to increase in
length。 Thus； at first； usage operated； so that this constitution
was the result of force： but； in the course of time； it was formed
naturally； so that usage had nothing to do with it； for the semen
comes from all parts of the body； sound from the sound parts； and
unhealthy from the unhealthy parts。 If； then； children with bald heads
are born to parents with bald heads； and children with blue eves to
parents who have blue eyes； and if the children of parents having
distorted eyes squint also for the most part； and if the same may be
said of other forms of the body； what is to prevent it from
happening that a child with a long head should be produced by a parent
having a long head？ But now these things do not happen as they did
formerly； for the custom no longer prevails owing to their intercourse
with other men。 Thus it appears to me to be with regard to them。
15。 As to the inhabitants of Phasis； their country is fenny； warm；
humid； and wooded； copious and severe rains occur there at all
seasons； and the life of the inhabitants is spent among the fens；
for their dwellings are constructed of wood and reeds； and are erected
amidst the waters； they seldom practice walking either to the city
or the market； but sail about； up and down； in canoes constructed
out of single trees； for there are many canals there。 They drink the
hot and stagnant waters； both when rendered putrid by the sun； and
when swollen with rains。 The Phasis itself is the most stagnant of all
rivers； and runs the smoothest； all the fruits which spring there
are unwholesome； feeble and imperfect growth； owing to the
redundance of water； and on this account they do not ripen； for much
vapor from the waters overspreads the country。 For these reasons the
Phasians have shapes different from those of all other men； for they
are large in stature； and of a very gross habit of body； so that not a
joint nor vein is visible； in color they are sallow； as if affected
with jaundice。 Of all men they have the roughest voices； from their
breathing an atmosphere which is not clear； but misty and humid；
they are naturally rather languid in supporting bodily fatigue。 The
seasons undergo but little change either as to heat or cold； their
winds for the most part are southerly； with the exception of one
peculiar to the country； which sometimes blows strong； is violent
and hot； and is called by them the wind cenchron。 The north wind
scarcely reaches them； and when it does blow it is weak and gentle。
Thus it is with regard to the different nature and shape of the
inhabitants of Asia and Europe。
16。 And with regard to the pusillanimity and cowardice of the
inhabitants； the principal reason the Asiatics are more unwarlike
and of gentler disposition than the Europeans is； the nature of the
seasons； which do not undergo any great changes either to heat or
cold； or the like； for there is neither excitement of the
understanding nor any strong change of the body whereby the temper
might be ruffled and they be roused to inconsiderate emotion and
passion； rather than living as they do always in the state。 It is
changes of all kinds which arouse understanding of mankind； and do not
allow them to get into a torpid condition。 For these reasons； it
appears to me； the Asiatic race is feeble； and further； owing to their
laws； for monarchy prevails in the greater part of Asia； and where men
are not their own masters nor independent； but are the slaves of
others； it is not a matter of consideration with them how they may
acquire military discipline； but how they may seem not to be
warlike； for the dangers are not equally shared； since they must serve
as soldiers； perhaps endure fatigue； and die for their masters； far
from their children； their wives； and other friends； and whatever
noble and manly actions they may perform lead only to the
aggrandizement of their masters； whilst the fruits which they reap are
dangers and death； and； in addition to all this； the lands of such
persons must be laid waste by the enemy and want of culture。 Thus；
then； if any one be naturally warlike and courageous； his
disposition will be changed by the institutions。 As a strong proof
of all this； such Greeks or barbarians in Asia as are not under a
despotic form of government； but are independent； and enjoy the fruits
of their own labors； are of all others the most warlike； for these
encounter dangers on their own account； bear the prizes of their own
valor； and in like manner endure the punishment of their own
cowardice。 And you will find the Asiatics differing from one
another； for some are better and others more dastardly； of these
differences； as I stated before； the changes of the seasons are the
cause。 Thus it is with Asia。
17。 In Europe there is a Scythian race； called Sauromatae； which
inhabits the confines of the Palus Maeotis； and is different from
all other races。 Their women mount on horseback； use the bow； and
throw the javelin from their horses； and fight with their enemies as
long as they are virgins； and they do not lay aside their virginity
until they kill three of their enemies； nor have any connection with
men until they perform the sacrifices according to law。 Whoever
takes to herself a husband； gives up riding on horseback unless the
necessity of a general expedition obliges her。 They have no right
breast； for while still of a tender age their mothers heat strongly
a copper instrument constructed for this very purpose； and apply it to
the right breast； which is burnt up； and its development being
arrested； all the strength and fullness are determined to the right
shoulder and arm。
18。 As the other Scythians have a peculiarity of shape； and do not
resemble any other； the same observation applies to the Egyptians；
only that the latter are oppressed by heat and the former by cold。
What is called the Scythian desert is a prairie； rich in meadows；
high…lying； and well watered； for the rivers which carry off the water
from the plains are large。 There live those Scythians which are called
Nomades； because they have no houses； but live in wagons。 The smallest
of these wagons have four wheels； but some have six； they are
covered in with felt； and they are constructed in the manner of
houses； some having but a single apartment； and some three； they are
proof against rain； snow； and winds。 The wagons are drawn by yokes
of oxen； some of two and others of three； and all without horns； for
they have no horns； owing to the cold。 In these wagons the women live；
but the men are carried about on horses； and the sheep； oxen； and
horses accompany them； and they remain on any spot as long as there is
provender for their cattle； and when that fails they migrate to some
other place。 They eat boiled meat； and drink the milk of mares； and
also eat hippace； which is cheese prepared from the milk of the
mare。 Such is their mode of life and their customs。
19。 In respect of the seasons and figure of body； the Scythian race；
like the Egyptian； have a uniformity of resemblance； different from
all other nations； they are by no means prolific； and the wild
beasts which are indigenous there are small in size and few in number；
for the country lies under the Northern Bears； and the Rhiphaean
mountains； whence the north wind blows； the sun comes very near to
them only when in the summer solstice； and warms them but for a
short period； and not strongly； and the winds blowing from the hot
regions of the earth do not reach them； or but seldom； and with little
force； but the winds from the north always blow； congealed； as they
are； by the snow； ice； and much water； for these never leave the
mountains； which are thereby rendered uninhabitable。 A thick fog
covers the plains during the day； and amidst it they live； so that
winter may be said to be always present with them； or； if they have
summer； it is only for a few days； and the heat is not very strong。
Their plains are high…lying and naked； not crowned with mountains； but
extending upwards under the Northern Bears。 The wild beasts there
are not large； but such as can be sheltered underground； for the
cold of winter and the barrenness of the country prevent their growth；
and because they have no covert nor shelter。 The changes of the
seasons； too； are not great nor violent； for； in fact； they change
gradually； and therefore their figures resemble one another； as they
all equally use the same food； and the same clothing summer and
winter； respiring a humid and dense atmosphere； and drinking water
from snow and ice； neither do they make any laborious exertions； for
neither body nor mind is capable of enduring fatigue when the
changes of the seasons are not great。 For these reasons their shapes
are gross and fleshy； with ill…marked joints； of a humid
temperament； and deficient in tone： the internal cavities； and
especially those of the intestines； are full of humors； fo