O rivulets of silver and of gold；
Of lead and copper too； collecting soon
Into the hollow places of the ground。
And when men saw the cooled lumps anon
To shine with splendour…sheen upon the ground；
Much taken with that lustrous smooth delight；
They 'gan to pry them out； and saw how each
Had got a shape like to its earthy mould。
Then would it enter their heads how these same lumps；
If melted by heat； could into any form
Or figure of things be run； and how； again；
If hammered out； they could be nicely drawn
To sharpest points or finest edge； and thus
Yield to the forgers tools and give them power
To chop the forest down； to hew the logs；
To shave the beams and planks； besides to bore
And punch and drill。 And men began such work
At first as much with tools of silver and gold
As with the impetuous strength of the stout copper；
But vainly… since their over…mastered power
Would soon give way； unable to endure；
Like copper； such hard labour。 In those days
Copper it was that was the thing of price；
And gold lay useless； blunted with dull edge。
Now lies the copper low； and gold hath come
Unto the loftiest honours。 Thus it is
That rolling ages change the times of things：
What erst was of a price； becomes at last
A discard of no honour； whilst another
Succeeds to glory； issuing from contempt；
And day by day is sought for more and more；
And； when 'tis found； doth flower in men's praise；
Objects of wondrous honour。
Now； Memmius；
How nature of iron discovered was； thou mayst
Of thine own self divine。 Man's ancient arms
Were hands； and nails and teeth； stones too and boughs…
Breakage of forest trees… and flame and fire；
As soon as known。 Thereafter force of iron
And copper discovered was； and copper's use
Was known ere iron's； since more tractable
Its nature is and its abundance more。
With copper men to work the soil began；
With copper to rouse the hurly waves of war；
To straw the monstrous wounds； and seize away
Another's flocks and fields。 For unto them；
Thus armed； all things naked of defence
Readily yielded。 Then by slow degrees
The sword of iron succeeded； and the shape
Of brazen sickle into scorn was turned：
With iron to cleave the soil of earth they 'gan；
And the contentions of uncertain war
Were rendered equal。
And； lo； man was wont
Armed to mount upon the ribs of horse
And guide him with the rein； and play about
With right hand free； oft times before he tried
Perils of war in yoked chariot；
And yoked pairs abreast came earlier
Than yokes of four； or scythed chariots
Whereinto clomb the men…at…arms。 And next
The Punic folk did train the elephants…
Those curst Lucanian oxen； hideous；
The serpent…handed； with turrets on their bulks…
To dure the wounds of war and panic…strike
The mighty troops of Mars。 Thus Discord sad
Begat the one Thing after other； to be
The terror of the nations under arms；
And day by day to horrors of old war
She added an increase。
Bulls； too； they tried
In war's grim business； and essayed to send
Outrageous boars against the foes。 And some
Sent on before their ranks puissant lions
With armed trainers and with masters fierce
To guide and hold in chains… and yet in vain；
Since fleshed with pell…mell slaughter； fierce they flew；
And blindly through the squadrons havoc wrought；
Shaking the frightful crests upon their heads；
Now here； now there。 Nor could the horsemen calm
Their horses； panic…breasted at the roar；
And rein them round to front the foe。 With spring
The infuriate she…lions would up…leap
Now here； now there； and whoso came apace
Against them； these they'd rend across the face；
And others unwitting from behind they'd tear
Down from their mounts； and twining round them； bring
Tumbling to earth； o'ermastered by the wound；
And with those powerful fangs and hooked claws
Fasten upon them。 Bulls would toss their friends；
And trample under foot； and from beneath
Rip flanks and bellies of horses with their horns；
And with a threat'ning forehead jam the sod；
And boars would gore with stout tusks their allies；
Splashing in fury their own blood on spears
Splintered in their own bodies； and would fell
In rout and ruin infantry and horse。
For there the beasts…of…saddle tried to scape
The savage thrusts of tusk by shying off；
Or rearing up with hoofs a…paw in air。
In vain… since there thou mightest see them sink；
Their sinews severed； and with heavy fall
Bestrew the ground。 And such of these as men
Supposed well…trained long ago at home；
Were in the thick of action seen to foam
In fury； from the wounds； the shrieks； the flight；
The panic； and the tumult； nor could men
Aught of their numbers rally。 For each breed
And various of the wild beasts fled apart
Hither or thither； as often in wars to…day
Flee those Lucanian oxen； by the steel
Grievously mangled； after they have wrought
Upon their friends so many a dreadful doom。
（If 'twas； indeed； that thus they did at all：
But scarcely I'll believe that men could not
With mind foreknow and see； as sure to come；
Such foul and general disaster。… This
We； then； may hold as true in the great All；
In divers worlds on divers plan create；…
Somewhere afar more likely than upon
One certain earth。） But men chose this to do
Less in the hope of conquering than to give
Their enemies a goodly cause of woe；
Even though thereby they perished themselves；
Since weak in numbers and since wanting arms。
Now； clothes of roughly inter…plaited strands
Were earlier than loom…wove coverings；
The loom…wove later than man's iron is；
Since iron is needful in the weaving art；
Nor by no other means can there be wrought
Such polished tools… the treadles； spindles； shuttles；
And sounding yarn…beams。 And nature forced the men；
Before the woman kind； to work the wool：
For all the male kind far excels in skill；
And cleverer is by much… until at last
The rugged farmer folk jeered at such tasks；
And so were eager soon to give them o'er
To women's hands； and in more hardy toil
To harden arms and hands。
But nature herself；
Mother of things； was the first seed…sower
And primal grafter； since the berries and acorns；
Dropping from off the trees； would there beneath
Put forth in season swarms of little shoots；
Hence too men's fondness for ingrafting slips
Upon the boughs and setting out in holes
The young shrubs o'er the fields。 Then would they try
Ever new modes of tilling their loved crofts；
And mark they would how earth improved the taste
Of the wild fruits by fond and fostering care。
And day by day they'd force the woods to move
Still higher up the mountain； and to yield
The place below for tilth； that there they might；
On plains and uplands； have their meadow…plats；
Cisterns and runnels； crops of standing grain；
And happy vineyards； and that all along
O'er hillocks； intervales； and plains might run
The silvery…green belt of olive…trees；
Marking the plotted landscape； even as now
Thou seest so marked with varied loveliness
All the terrain which men adorn and plant
With rows of goodly fruit…trees and hedge round
With thriving shrubberies sown。
But by the mouth
To imitate the liquid notes of birds
Was earlier far 'mongst men than power to make；
By measured song； melodious verse and give
Delight to ears。 And whistlings of the wind
Athrough the hollows of the reeds first taught
The peasantry to blow into the stalks
Of hollow hemlock…herb。 Then bit by bit
They learned sweet plainings； such as pipe out…pours；
Beaten by finger…tips of singing men；
When heard through unpathed groves and forest deeps
And woodsy meadows； through the untrod haunts
Of shepherd folk and spots divinely still。
Thus time draws forward each and everything
Little by little unto the midst of men；
And reason uplifts it to the shores of light。
These tunes would soothe and glad the minds of mortals
When sated with food；… for songs are welcome then。
And often； lounging with friends in the soft grass
Beside a river of water； underneath
A big tree's branches； merrily they'd refresh
Their frames； with no vast outlay… most of all
If the weather were smiling and the times of the year
Were painting the green of the grass around with flowers。
Then jokes； then talk； then peals of jollity
Would circle round； for then the rustic muse
Was in her glory； then would antic Mirth
Prompt them to garland head and shoulders about
With chaplets of intertwined flowers and leaves；
And to dance onward； out of tune； with limbs
Clownishly swaying； and with clownish foot
To beat our mother earth… from whence arose
Laughter and peals of jollity； for； lo；
Such frolic acts were in their glory then；
Being more new and strange。 And wakeful men
Found solaces for their unsleeping hours
In drawing forth variety of notes；
In modulating melodies； in running
With puckered lips along the tuned reeds；
Whence； even in our day do the watchmen guard
These old traditions； and have learned well
To keep true measure。 And yet they no whit
Do get a larger fruit of gladsomeness
Than got the woodland aborigines
In olden times。 For what we have at hand…
If theretofore naught sweeter we have known…
That chiefly pleases and seems best of all；
But then some later； likely better； find
Destroys its worth and changes our desires
Regarding good of yesterday。
And thus
Began the loathing of the acorn； thus
Abandoned were those beds with grasses strewn
And with the leaves beladen。 Thus； again；
Fell into new contempt the pelts of beasts…
Erstwhile a robe of honour； which； I guess；
Aroused in those days envy so malign
That the first wearer went to woeful death
By ambuscades；… and yet that hairy prize；
Rent into rags by greedy foemen there
And splashed by blood； was ruined utterly
Beyond all use or vantage。 Thus of old
'Twas pelts； and of to…day 'tis purple and gold
That cark men's lives with cares and weary with war。
Wherefore； methinks； resides the greater blame
With us vain men to…day： for cold would rack；
Without their pelts； the naked sons of earth；
But us it nothing hurts to do without
The purple vestment； broidered with gold
And with imposing f