political rights； and to improve his economic and social status。 In 1861； the American Negro was everywhere an inferior； and most of his race were slaves； in 1865； he was no longer a slave； but whether he was to be serf； ward； or citizen was an unsettled problem； in 1868； he was in the South the legal and political equal； frequently the superior； of the white； and before the end of the reconstruction period he was made by the legislation of some states and by Congress the legal equal of the white even in certain social matters。
The race problem which confronted the American people had no parallel in the past。 British and Spanish…American emancipation of slaves had affected only small numbers or small regions； in which one race greatly outnumbered the other。 The results of these earlier emancipations of the Negroes and the difficulties of European states in dealing with subject white populations were not such as to afford helpful example to American statesmen。 But since it was the actual situation in the Southern States rather than the experience of other countries which shaped the policies adopted during reconstruction； it is important to examine with some care the conditions in which the Negroes in the South found themselves at the close of the war。
The Negroes were not all helpless and without experience 〃when freedom cried out。〃* In the Border States and in the North there were； in 1861； half a million free Negroes accustomed to looking out for themselves。 Nearly 200；000 Negro men were enlisted in the United States army between 1862 and 1865； and many thousands of slaves had followed raiding Federal forces to freedom or had escaped through the Confederate lines。 State emancipation in Missouri； Maryland； West Virginia； and Tennessee； and the practical application of the Emancipation Proclamation where the Union armies were in control ended slavery for many thousands more。 Wherever the armies marched； slavery ended。 This was true even in Kentucky； where the institution was not legally abolished until the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment。 Altogether more than a million Negroes were free and to some extent habituated to freedom before May 1865。
*A Negro phrase much used in referring to emancipation。
Most of these war…emancipated Negroes were scattered along the borders of the Confederacy； in camps； in colonies； in the towns； on refugee farms； at work with the armies； or serving as soldiers in the ranks。 There were large working colonies along the Atlantic coast from Maryland to Florida。 The chief centers were near Norfolk； where General Butler was the first to establish a 〃contraband〃 camp； in North Carolina； and on the Sea Islands of South Carolina； Georgia； and Florida； which had been seized by the Federal fleet early in the war。 To the Sea Islands also were sent； in 1865； the hordes of Negroes who had followed General Sherman out of Georgia and South Carolina。 Through the border states from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and along both sides of the Mississippi from Cairo； Illinois； to New Orleans； there were other refugee camps； farms； and colonies。 For periods varying from one to four years these free Negroes had been at work； often amid conditions highly unfavorable to health； under the supervision of officers of the Treasury Department or of the army。
Emancipation was therefore a gradual process； and most of the Negroes； through their widening experience on the plantations； with the armies； and in the colonies； were better fitted for freedom in 1865 than they had been in 1861。 Even their years of bondage had done something for them； for they knew how to work and they had adopted in part the language； habits； religion； and morals of the whites。 But slavery had not made them thrifty； self…reliant； or educated。 Frederick Douglass said of the Negro at the end of his servitude： 〃He had none of the conditions of self…preservation or self…protection。 He was free from the individual master； but he had nothing but the dusty road under his feet。 He was free from the old quarter that once gave him shelter； but a slave to the rains of summer and to the frosts of winter。 He was turned loose； naked； hungry； and destitute to the open sky。〃 To prove that he was free the Negro thought he must leave his old master； change his name； quit work for a time； perhaps get a new wife； and hang around the Federal soldiers in camp or garrison； or go to the towns where the Freedmen's Bureau was in process of organization。 To the Negroes who remained at homeand； curiously enough； for a time at least many did sothe news of freedom was made known somewhat ceremonially by the master or his representative。 The Negroes were summoned to the 〃big house；〃 told that they were free； and advised to stay on for a share of the crop。 The description by Mrs。 Clayton； the wife of a Southern general； will serve for many： 〃My husband said； 'I think it best for me to inform our Negroes of their freedom。' So he ordered all the grown slaves to come to him； and told them they no longer belonged to him as property； but were all free。 'You are not bound to remain with me any longer； and I have a proposition to make to you。 If any of you desire to leave； I propose to furnish you with a conveyance to move you； and with provisions for the balance of the year。' The universal answer was； 'Master； we want to stay right here with you。' In many instances the slaves were so infatuated with the idea of being； as they said； 'free as birds' that they left their homes and consequently suffered； but our slaves were not so foolish。〃*
* 〃Black and White under the Old Regime〃； p。 158；
The Negroes； however； had learned of their freedom before their old masters returned from the war； they were aware that the issues of the war involved in some way the question of their freedom or servitude； and through the 〃grapevine telegraph；〃 the news brought by the invading soldiers； and the talk among the whites； they had long been kept fairly well informed。 What the idea of freedom meant to the Negroes it is difficult to say。 Some thought that there would be no more work and that all would be cared for by the Government； others believed that education and opportunity were about to make them the equal of their masters。 The majority of them were too bewildered to appreciate anything except the fact that they were free from enforced labor。
Conditions were most disturbed in the so…called 〃Black Belt；〃 consisting of about two hundred counties in the most fertile parts of the South； where the plantation system was best developed and where by far the majority of the Negroes were segregated。 The Negroes in the four hundred more remote and less fertile 〃white〃 counties； which had been less disturbed by armies； were not so upset by freedom as those of the Black Belt； for the garrisons and the larger towns； both centers of demoralization； were in or near the Black Belt。 But there was a moving to and fro on the part of those who had escaped from the South or had been captured during the war or carried into the interior of the South to prevent capture。 To those who left slavery and home to find freedom were added those who had found freedom and were now trying to get back home or to get away from the Negro camps and colonies which were breaking up。 A stream of immigration which began to flow to the southwest affected Negroes as far as the Atlantic coast。 In the confusion of moving； families were broken up； and children； wife； or husband were often lost to one another。 The very old people and the young children were often left behind for the former master to care for。 Regiments of Negro soldiers were mustered out in every large town and their numbers were added to the disorderly mass。 Some of the Federal garrisons and Bureau stations were almost overwhelmed by the numbers of blacks who settled down upon them waiting for freedom to bestow its full measure of blessing； and many of the Negroes continued to remain in a demoralized condition until the new year。
The first year of freedom was indeed a year of disease； suffering； and death。 Several partial censuses indicate that in 1865…66 the Negro population lost as many by disease as the whites had lost in war。 Ill…fed； crowded in cabins near the garrisons or entirely without shelter； and unaccustomed to caring for their own health； the blacks who were searching for freedom fell an easy prey to ordinary diseases and to epidemics。 Poor health conditions prevailed for several years longer。 In 1870； Robert Somers remarked that 〃the health of the whites has greatly improved since the war； while the health of the Negroes has declined till the mortality of the colored population； greater than the mortality of the whites was before the war； has now become so markedly greater； that nearly two colored die for every white person out of equal numbers of each。〃
Morals and manners also suffered under the new dispensation。 In the crowded and disease…stricken towns and camps； the conditions under which the roving Negroes lived were no better for morals than for health； for here there were none of the restraints to which the blacks had been accustomed and which they now despised as being a part of their servitude。 But in spite of all the relief that could be given there was much want。 In fact； to restore former conditions the relief agencies frequently cut off supplies in order to force the Negroes back to work and to prevent others from leaving the country for the towns。 But the hungry freedmen turned to the nearest food supply； and 〃spilin de gypshuns〃 （despoiling the Egyptians； as the Negroes called stealing from the whites） became an approved means of support。 Thefts of hogs； cattle； poultry； field crops； and vegetables drove almost to desperation those whites who lived in the vicinity of the Negro camps。 When the ex…slave felt obliged to go to town； he was likely to take with him a team and wagon and his master's clothes if he could get them。
The former good manners of the Negro were now replaced by impudence and distrust。 There were advisers among the Negro troops and other agitators who assured them that politeness to whites was a mark of servitude。 Pushing and crowding in public places； on street cars and on the sidewalks； and impudent speeches everywhere