and crowding in public places； on street cars and on the sidewalks； and impudent speeches everywhere marked generally the limit of rudeness。 And the Negroes were； in this respect； perhaps no worse than those European immigrants who act upon the principle that bad manners are a proof of independence。
The year following emancipation was one of religious excitement for large numbers of the blacks。 Before 1865； the Negro church members were attached to white congregations or were organized into missions； with nearly always a white minister in charge and a black assistant。 With the coming of freedom the races very soon separated in religious matters。 For this there were two principal reasons： the Negro preachers could exercise more influence in independent churches； and new church organizations from the North were seeking Negro membership。 Sometimes Negro members were urged to insist on the right 〃to sit together〃 with the whites。 In a Richmond church a Negro from the street pushed his way to the communion altar and knelt。 There was a noticeable pause； then General Robert E。 Lee went forward and knelt beside the Negro； and the congregation followed his example。 But this was a solitary instance。 When the race issue was raised by either color； the church membership usually divided。 There was much churchgoing by the Negroes； day and night； and church festivities and baptisms were common。 The blacks preferred immersion and； wanted a new baptism each time they changed to a new church。 Baptizings in ponds； creeks； or rivers were great occasions and were largely attended。 〃Shouting〃 the candidates went into the water and 〃shouting〃 they came out。 One old woman came up screaming； 〃Freed from slavery！ freed from sin！ Bless God and General Grant！〃
In the effort to realize their new…found freedom； the Negroes were heavily handicapped by their extreme poverty and their ignorance。 The total value of free Negro property ran up into the millions in 1860； but the majority of the Negroes had nothing。 There were a few educated Negroes in the South； and more in the North and in Canada； but the mass of the race was too densely ignorant to furnish its own leadership。 The case； however； was not hopeless； the Negro was able to work and in large territories had little competition； wages were high； even though paid in shares of the crop； the cost of living was low； and land was cheap。 Thousands seemed thirsty for an education and crowded the schools which were available。 It was too much； however； to expect the Negro to take immediate advantage of his opportunities。 What he wanted was a long holiday； a gun and a dog； and plenty of hunting and fishing。 He must have Saturday at least for a trip to town or to a picnic or a circus； he did not wish to be a servant。 When he had any money； swindlers reaped a harvest。 They sold him worthless finery； cheap guns； preparations to bleach the skin or straighten the hair； and striped pegs which； when set up on the master's plantation； would entitle the purchaser to 〃40 acres and a mule。〃
The attitude of the Negroes' employers not infrequently complicated the situation which they sought to better。 The old masters were； as a rule； skeptical of the value of free Negro labor。 Carl Schurz thought this attitude boded ill for the future： 〃A belief； conviction； or prejudice； or whatever you may call it；〃 he said； 〃so widely spread and apparently deeply rooted as this； that the Negro will not work without physical compulsion； is certainly calculated to have a very serious influence upon the conduct of the people entertaining it。 It naturally produced a desire to preserve slavery in its original form as much and as long as possible 。 。 。 or to introduce into the new system that element of physical compulsion which would make the Negro work。〃 The Negro wished to be free to leave his job when he pleased； but； as Benjamin C。 Truman stated in his report to President Johnson； a 〃result of the settled belief in the Negro's inferiority； and in the necessity that he should not be left to himself without a guardian； is that in some sections he is discouraged from leaving his old master。 I have known of planters who considered it an offence against neighborhood courtesy for another to hire their old hands； and in two instances that were reported the disputants came to blows over the breach of etiquette。〃 The new Freedmen's Bureau insisted upon written contracts； except for day laborers； and this undoubtedly kept many Negroes from working regularly； for they were suspicious of contracts。 Besides； the agitators and the Negro troops led them to hope for an eventual distribution of property。 An Alabama planter thus described the situation in December 1865：
〃They will not work for anything but wages； and few are able to pay wages。 They are penniless but resolute in their demands。 They expect to see all the land divided out equally between them and their old masters in time to make the next crop。 One of the most intelligent black men I know told me that in a neighboring village； where several hundred blacks were congregated； he does not think that as many as three made contracts； although planters are urgent in their solicitations and offering highest prices for labor they can possibly afford to pay。 The same man informed me that the impression widely prevails that Congress is about to divide out the lands； and that this impression is given out by Federal soldiers at the nearest military station。 It cannot be disguised that in spite of the most earnest efforts of their old master to conciliate and satisfy them； the estrangement between races increases in its extent and bitterness。 Nearly all the Negro men are armed with repeaters； and many of them carry them openly； day and night。〃
The relations between the races were better； however； than conditions seemed to indicate。 The whites of the Black Belt were better disposed toward the Negroes than were those of the white districts。 It was in the towns and villages that most of the race conflicts occurred。 All whites agreed that the Negro was inferior； but there were many who were grateful for his conduct during the war and who wished him well。 But others； the policemen of the towns； the 〃loyalists；〃 those who had little but pride of race and the vote to distinguish them from the blacks； felt no good will toward the ex…slaves。 It was Truman's opinion 〃not only that the planters are far better friends to the Negroes than the poor whites； but also better than a majority of the Northern men who go South to rent plantations。〃 John T。 Trowbridge； the novelist； who recorded his impressions of the South after a visit in 1865； was of the opinion that the Unionists 〃do not like niggers。〃 〃For there is；〃 he said； 〃more prejudice against color among the middle and poorer classesthe Union men of the South who owned few or no slavesthan among the planters who owned them by scores and hundreds。〃 The reports of the Freedmen's Bureau are to the same effect。 A Bureau agent in Tennessee testified： 〃An old citizen； a Union man； said to me； said he； 'I tell you what； if you take away the military from Tennessee； the buzzards can't eat up the niggers as fast as we'll kill them。'〃
The lawlessness of the Negroes in parts of the Black Belt and the disturbing influences of the black troops； of some officials of the Bureau； and of some of the missionary teachers and preachers； caused the whites to fear insurrections and to take measures for protection。 Secret semi…military organizations were formed which later developed into the Ku Klux orders。 When； however； New Year's Day 1866 passed without the hoped…for distribution of Property； the Negroes began to settle down。
At the beginning of the period of reconstruction； it seemed possible that the Negro race might speedily fall into distinct economic groups； for there were some who had property and many others who had the ability and the opportunity to acquire it； but the later drawing of race lines and the political disturbances of reconstruction checked this tendency。 It was expected also that the Northern planters who came South in large numbers in 1865…66 might； by controlling the Negro labor and by the use of more efficient methods； aid in the economic upbuilding of the country。 But they were ignorant of agricultural matters and incapable of wisely controlling the blacks； and they failed because at one time they placed too much trust in the Negroes and at another treated them too harshly and expected too much of them。
The question of Negro suffrage was not a live issue in the South until the middle of 1866。 There was almost no talk about it among the Negroes； they did not know what it was。 President Lincoln in 1864 and President Johnson in 1865 had merely mentioned the subject； though Chief Justice Chase and prominent radical members of Congress； as well as numerous abolitionists； had framed a Negro suffrage platform。 But the Southern whites； considering the matter an impossibility； gave it little consideration。 There was； however； both North and South； a tendency to see a connection between the freedom of the Negroes and their political rights and thus to confuse civil equality with political and social privileges。 But the great masses of the whites were solidly opposed to the recognition of Negro equality in any form。 The poorer whites； especially the 〃Unionists〃 who hoped to develop an opposition party； were angered by any discussion of the subject。 An Alabama 〃Unionist；〃 M。 J。 Saffold； later prominent as a radical politician； declared to the Joint Committee on Reconstruction： 〃If you compel us to carry through universal suffrage of colored； men 。 。 。 it will prove quite an *incubus upon us in the organization of a national union party of white men； it will furnish our opponents with a very effective weapon of offense against us。〃
There were； however； some Southern leaders of ability and standing who； by 1866； were willing to consider Negro suffrage。 These men； among them General Wade Hampton of South Carolina and Governor Robert Patton of Alabama； were of the slaveholding class； and they fully counted on being able to control the Negro's vote by methods similar to those actually put in force a quarter of a century later。 The Negroes were not as yet politically or