those actually put in force a quarter of a century later。 The Negroes were not as yet politically organized were not even interested in politics； and the master class might reasonably hope to regain control of them。 Whitelaw Reid published an interview with one of the Hamptons which describes the situation exactly：
〃A brother of General Wade Hampton； the South Carolina Hotspur； was on board。 He saw no great objection to Negro suffrage； so far as the whites were concerned； and for himself； South Carolinian and secessionist though he was； he was quite willing to accept it。 He only dreaded its effect on the blacks themselves。 Hitherto they had in the main； been modest and respectful； and mere freedom was not likely to spoil them。 But the deference to them likely to be shown by partisans eager for their votes would have a tendency to uplift them and unbalance them。 Beyond this； no harm would be done the South by Negro suffrage。 The old owners would cast the votes of their people almost as absolutely and securely as they cast their own。 If Northern men expected in this way to build up a northern party in the South； they were gravely mistaken。 They would only be multiplying the power of the old and natural leaders of Southern politics by giving every vote to a former slave。 Heretofore such men had served their masters only in the fields； now they would do no less faithful service at the polls。 If the North could stand it； the South could。 For himself； he should make no special objection to Negro suffrage as one of the terms of reorganization； and if it came； he did not think the South would have much cause to regret it。〃
To sum up the situation at this time： the Negro population at the close of the war constituted a tremendous problem for those in authority。 The race was free； but without status； without leaders； without property； and without education。 Probably a fourth of them had some experience in freedom before the Confederate armies surrendered； and the servitude of the other three millions ended very quickly and without violence。 But in the Black Belt； where the bulk of the black population was to be found； the labor system was broken up； and for several months the bewildered freedmen wandered about or remained at home under conditions which were bad for health； morals； and thrift。 The Northern Negroes did not furnish the expected leadership for the race； and the more capable men in the South showed a tendency to go North。 The unsettled state of the Negroes and their expectation of receiving a part of the property of the whites kept the latter uneasy and furnished the occasion of frequent conflicts。 Not the least of the unsettling influences at work upon the Negro population were the colored troops and the agitators furnished by the Freedmen's Bureau； the missions； and the Bureau schools。 But at the beginning of the year 1866； the situation appeared to be clearing； and the social and economic revolution seemed on the way to a quieter ending than might have been expected。
CHAPTER III。 THE WORK OF THE PRESIDENTS
The war ended slavery； but it left the problem of the freed slave； it preserved the Union in theory； but it left unsolved many delicate problems of readjustment。 Were the seceded States in or out of the Union？ If in the Union； what rights had they？ If they were not in the Union； what was their status？ What was the status of the Southern Unionist； of the ex…Confederate？ What punishments should be inflicted upon the Southern people？ What authority； executive or legislative； should carry out the work of reconstruction？ The end of the war brought with it； in spite of much discussion； no clear answer to these perplexing questions。
Unfortunately； American political life； with its controversies over colonial government； its conflicting interpretations of written constitutions； and its legally trained statesmen； had by the middle of the nineteenth century produced a habit of political thought which demanded the settlement of most governmental matters upon a theoretical basis。 And now in 1865； each prominent leader had his own plan of reconstruction fundamentally irreconcilable with all the others； because rigidly theoretical。 During the war the powers of the executive had been greatly expanded and a legislative reaction was to be expected。 The Constitution called for fresh interpretation in the light of the Civil War and its results。
The first theory of reconstruction may be found in the Crittenden…Johnson resolutions of July 1861； which declared that the war was being waged to maintain the Union under the Constitution and that it should cease when these objects were obtained。 This would have been subscribed to in 1861 by the Union Democrats and by most of the Republicans； and in 1865 the conquered Southerners would have been glad to reenter the Union upon this basis； but though in 1865 the resolution still expressed the views of many Democrats； the majority of Northern people had moved away from this position。
The attitude of Lincoln； which in 1865 met the views of a majority of the Northern people though not of the political leaders； was that 〃no State can upon its mere motion get out of the Union；〃 that the States survived though there might be some doubt about state governments； and that 〃loyal〃 state organizations might be established by a population consisting largely of ex…Confederates who had been pardoned by the President and made 〃loyal〃 for the future by an oath of allegiance。 Reconstruction was； Lincoln thought； a matter for the executive to handle。 But that he was not inflexibly committed to any one plan is indicated by his proclamation after the pocket veto of the Wade…Davis Bill and by his last speech； in which he declared that the question of whether the seceded States were in the Union or out of it was 〃merely a pernicious abstraction。〃 In addition； Lincoln said：
〃We are all agreed that the seceded States； so called； are out of their proper practical relation with the Union； and that the sole object of the government； civil and military； in regard to those States is to again get them into that proper practical relation。 I believe that it is not only possible； but in fact easier； to do this without deciding or even considering whether these States have ever been out of the Union； than with it。 Finding themselves safely at home； it would be utterly immaterial whether they had ever been abroad。 Let us all join in doing the acts necessary to restore the proper practical relations between these States and the Union； and each forever after innocently indulge his own opinion whether in doing the acts he brought the States from without into the Union； or only gave them proper assistance； they never having been out of it。〃
President Johnson's position was essentially that of Lincoln； but his attitude toward the working out of the several problems was different。 He maintained that the states survived and that it was the duty of the executive to restore them to their proper relations。 〃The true theory；〃 said he； 〃is that all pretended acts of secession were from the beginning null and void。 The States cannot commit treason nor screen individual citizens who may have committed treason any more than they can make valid treaties or engage in lawful commerce with any foreign power。 The states attempting to secede placed themselves in a condition where their vitality was impaired； but not extinguished； their functions suspended； but not destroyed。〃 Lincoln would have had no severe punishments inflicted even on leaders； but Johnson wanted to destroy the 〃slavocracy；〃 root and branch。 Confiscation of estates would； he thought； be a proper measure。 He said on one occasion： 〃Traitors should take a back seat in the work of restoration 。。 。 。 My judgment is that he ＇a rebel＇ should be subjected to a severe ordeal before he is restored to citizenship。 Treason should be made odious； and traitors must be punished and impoverished。 Their great plantations must be seized； and divided into small farms and sold to honest； industrious men。〃 The violence of Johnson's views subsequently underwent considerable modification but to the last he held to the plan of executive restoration based upon state perdurance。 Neither Lincoln nor Johnson favored a change of Southern institutions other than the abolition of slavery； though each recommended a qualified Negro suffrage。
There were； however； other theories in the field； notably those of the radical Republican leaders。 According to the state…suicide theory of Charles Sumner； 〃any vote of secession or other act by which any State may undertake to put an end to the supremacy of the Constitution within its territory is inoperative and void against the Constitution； and when sustained by force it becomes a practical ABDICATION by the State of all rights under the Constitution； while the treason it involves still further works an instant FORFEITURE of all those functions and powers essential to the continued existence of the State as a body politic； so that from that time forward the territory falls under the exclusive jurisdiction of Congress as other territory； and the State； being according to the language of the law felo de se； ceases to exist。〃 Congress should punish the 〃rebels〃 by abolishing slavery； by giving civil and political rights to Negroes； and by educating them with the whites。
Not essentially different； but harsher； was Thaddeus Stevens's plans for treating the South as a conquered foreign province。 Let the victors treat the seceded States 〃as conquered provinces and settle them with new men and exterminate or drive out the present rebels as exiles。〃 Congress in dealing with these provinces was not bound even by the Constitution； 〃a bit of worthless parchment；〃 but might legislate as it pleased in regard to slavery； the ballot； and confiscation。 With regard to the white population； he said： 〃I have never desired bloody punishments to any great extent。 But there are punishments quite as appalling； and longer remembered； than death。 They are more advisable； because they would reach a greater number。 Strip a proud nobility of their bloated estates； reduce them to a level with plain republicans； send them forth to labor； and teach their children to enter the workshops o