。 Having a negative； nonprofessional record； such as problems in college or with the
police （Rainville & McCormick； 1977）
All of these players were exceptional athletes； yet the white players were described as active
causal agents on the field and the African American players as passive objects moved by external
forces。
Reducing Racism
Once established； prejudice and racism are relatively resistant to extinction because of the several
needs they may serve for the individuals and the group； and the many conditions that may
encourage and maintain existing attitudes。 Although progress has been made in reducing
prejudice and racism； a tremendous amount of progress remains to be acplished。
Here are some techniques we can use to reduce racism：
。 Change actions： Research has shown that contact between antagonistic groups can
promote better intergroup relations and lessen existing hostilities。 Mere exposure；
however； does not help and is more likely to intensify existing attitudes。 Changes as a
result of contact are most likely to occur when the contact is rewarding rather than
thwarting； when a mutual interest or goal is served； when status is equal； and when the
participants perceive that the contact was the result of their own choice。
。 Change the rules and the reinforcements： Although “righteousness cannot be legislated；” a
new law or regulation provides a new system of rewards and punishments and can
thereby create a new social norm that then bees a powerful influence on individuals
to conform to the new pattern。 The same results may be achieved by more informal
agreements to change “ground rules。”
。 Change the self…image of victims of prejudice： Young people who are targets of prejudice may
be “inoculated” against its crippling psychological effects and thus be helped to develop
and demonstrate their real potentials if they establish a sense of pride in their origins；
history； and group identity。 The “Black is beautiful” slogan represents an effective
instance of this approach； as do “Gray Power” and “Gay Pride。”
。 Change petitive encounters to cooperative ones： Environments that foster interpersonal
petition are often breeding grounds for envy； jealousy； hostility； and self…derogation。
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By creating conditions in which students must depend on one another for learning
required material； teachers can help overe some interracial conflicts that exist in
traditional classrooms。 When every member’s contribution is equally valuable； students
feel like partners rather than petitors； and those in desegregated settings can discover
the advantages of sharing knowledge and friendship with “equal and interdependent”
peers…regardless of race； creed； or sex。
In…Groups； Out…Groups； and Groupthink
The groupthink hypothesis proposes that members of small cohesive units have a tendency to
maintain esprit de corps through the unconscious development of shared illusions and related
norms。 These norms subsequently interfere with the group’s critical thinking and reality testing
（Janis； 1972）。 The groupthink phenomenon offers an exemplar of the in…group/out…group； us…
against…them scenario。 It is an annoying phenomenon at best； and a dangerous one at worst。
Consider the philosophies of a small group； caught up in the illusion of its own invulnerability；
its excluding any ideas from outside the group； and controlled by leadership tactics that subtly
sanction members who dare to suggest alternative courses of action or raise critical issues。 The
guiding premise of groupthink is； “If our leader and everyone else in our group decides that it is
okay； the plan is bound to succeed。 Even if it is quite risky； luck will be on our side。” （Janis； 1972；
in Frost； Mitchell； & Nord； 1982； p。 350）。
Groupthink is the epitome of the “my…mind…is…made…up； don’t…confuse…me…with…facts” mentality。
This mentality is carefully guarded by all members of the group。 This collective behavior tends to
surface in times of crisis and effectively closes off input from any source outside the group。
Reliance of the group on consensual validation replaces critical thinking by any one member；
reality testing is shunned。 Members of the group share an illusion of unanimity； with the blanket
assumption that all members concur in the position of the group’s leader（s）； creating an
atmosphere of assumed consensus of thought。
Janis （1972） offered eight characteristics of the groupthink mentality。
1。 Illusion of invulnerability： Overemphasis of group strengths； and exaggeration of the
capacity to plete a risky course of action。
2。 Rationalization of negative information： Collective discounting and rationalization of
warnings of imminent danger resulting from pursuit of a specific course of action。
3。 Stereotyping of out…group： Sharing of distorted perceptions of rivals as being：
Too weak or stupid to pose a viable threat
Too stupid to negotiate with
4。 Assumption of morality： A belief that the inherent morality of the group and its objectives
preclude any requirement to question the morality of methods employed to attain goals。
5。 Self…censorship： Individual members’ doubts and misgivings are not expressed。
6。 Illusion of unanimity： Lack of dissent is interpreted by the group as concurrence in
philosophies。
7。 Mindguarding： Certain members of the group protect the group from negative
information by suppressing the information pletely。
8。 Direct social pressure： Members apply social pressure to discourage expressions of doubts
or criticism of the group’s illusions； stereotypes； or judgments。
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Cults
In expanding the text’s discussion of cults； you might review the types of people who are most
monly recruited by cults。 They are often adolescents and young adults who are somewhat
idealistic； so that they are more susceptible to the cult’s utopian message。 They are likely to be
people who are psychologically vulnerable in that they are lonely； depressed； feeling rejected；
lost； hopeless； or desperate in some way。 They may have had long…term problems or may have
suffered a temporary setback in their life； but they are vulnerable at that moment and the cult
promises a new direction or hope that will make them feel loved； appreciated； and special again。
They may be searching for some sense of direction in their lives or someone to blame for their
problems； and often cults seemingly provide them with both。 No matter what the specific
circumstances； as the text points out； once someone is under the control of a cult； the techniques
they use to manipulate the person’s attitudes and behaviors can be extremely powerful。 Which is
why it is so important for students to be aware of how cults operate before they are ever tempted
to join one。
BIOLOGHAPHICAL PROFILES
Solomon Asch （1907—1996）
Solomon Asch obtained his Ph。D。 at Columbia University in 1932。 He subsequently taught at the
New School for Social Research in New York City and at Rutgers University。 Asch’s research and
conceptual orientation in social psychology were influenced strongly by the Gestalt school；
particularly as represented in the writings of his close friend； Max Wertheimer。 Asch is best
known for his pioneering research on conformity and the effects of group pressure on the
behavior of the individual。 Among his major works is the classic text Social Psychology； published
in 1952。
Stanley Milgram （1933—1984）
Stanley Milgram was born in New York City； received his Ph。D。 from Harvard in 1960； and
taught briefly at Yale； before returning to Harvard in 1963 as the Executive Director of the
parative International Program in the Department of Social Relations。 Milgram is well
known for his series of experiments on obedience to authority； which he conducted during the
early 1960s。 This controversial research brought him both vehement criticism and praise；
including the American Association for the Advancement of Science’s Socio…Psychology Prize in
1965。 He became distinguished professor at City University of New York in 1980。 His works
include Obedience to Authority （1974） and the award…winning short film； The City and the Self
（1974）。
Muzafer Sherif （1906—1988）
Muzafer Sherif obtained his masters degree at Istanbul University； Turkey。 After winning a
fellowship abroad； he traveled to Harvard to study； primarily because of William James’ legacy。
He obtained a second master’s degree at Harvard； then went to Columbia University； where he
conducted his dissertation； classic research on the autokinetic effect。 While at the University of
Oklahoma from 1949 to 1965； he investigated the effects of petition on the emergence of
stereotypes and intergroup hostility； and the ameliorative effects of intergroup cooperation。 With
his wife； Carolyn； Sherif examined social judgments and attitudes； and the natural behavior of
adolescents in groups。 From 1965 to 1972； he taught at Penn State University。
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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
Aronson； E。 （1994）。 The Social Animal； 7th Ed。 New York； W。 H。 Freeman。 A narrative approach to
social psychology。 This classic presents theory and research in an interesting and very
relevant manner。 Topics covered include prejudice； propaganda； war； alienation； aggression；
unrest； and political upheaval。
Deaux； K。； & Wrightsman； L。 （1988）。 Social Psychology； 5th Ed。 Pacific Grove； CA： Brooks/Cole。 A
basic text with wide coverage。 Research…oriented； with emphasis on applications of social
psychology。
Evans； R。 （1980）。 The Making of Social Psychology： Discussions with Creative Contributors。 New York：
Gardner Press。 A collection of Evans’ discussions with nineteen significant contributors to the
field of social psychology； and is an excellent reference for both biographical and historical
material。
Lewin； K。 （1951）。 Field Theory in Social Science： Selected Theoretical Papers。 Edited by Dorwin
Cartwright。 New York： Harpers。 A