《心理学与生活》

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Lewin; K。 (1951)。 Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical Papers。 Edited by Dorwin 
Cartwright。 New York: Harpers。 A classic text by the founder of the discipline of social 
psychology。 

Markus; H。; & Kitayama; S。 (1991)。 Culture and the Self。 Implications for Cognition; Emotion; and 
Motivation。 Psychological Review; 98(2); 224…253。 Explores the possibility that concepts of “self’ 
may differ cross…culturally。 Presents research that suggests that Asia cultures foster an 
“interdependent’ conception of self; while Western cultures foster an “independent” 
conception of self 

Milgram; S。 (1974)。 Obedience to Authority。 New York: Harper & Row。 Milgram presents his ideas 
on the topic of obedience and describes his famous research involving the shocking machine。 

Reber; A。 S。 (1985)。 The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology。 London: The Penguin Group。 A concise; 
cogent dictionary of even the most obscure psychological terms。 

Ross; L。; & Nisbett; R。 (1991)。 The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology。 New 
York: McGraw…Hill。 An excellent summary and review of the field of social psychology by 
two leading researchers。 Presents the plex and often contradictory findings of social 
psychology in a manner easily understood by all。 

Spiegel; D。; Bloom; J。; Kraemer; H。; & Gottheil; E。 (1994)。 Effect of Psychosocial Treatment on Survival 
of Patients with Metastatic Breast Cancer。 In Psychosocial Processes and Health: A Reader; 468…477。 
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press。 Presents research that suggests participating in 
social support groups can dramatically increase length of survival of women with metastatic 
breast cancer。 Provides a dramatic example of how social factors can influence biological 
ones。 

Steele; C。 (1997)。 A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance。 
American Psychologist; 52(6); 613…629。 Introduces “stereotype threat’ and discusses its 
influence on the performance of stereotyped individuals。 Stereotype threat is a phenomenon 
in which the fear of confirming a stereotype leads to anxiety that actually causes the 
fulfillment of the stereotype。 It is used to explain lower academic performance by stereotyped 
group pared to nonstereotyped groups。 

Tesser; A。 (1995)。 Advanced Social Psychology。 New York: McGraw…Hill。 An excellent introduction 
to the field of social psychology。 Individual chapters are written by leading researchers in 
different areas of social psychology。 

374 


CHAPTER 18: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIETY; AND CULTURE 

DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY 

PROGRAM 17: SEX AND GENDER 

Overview 

The ways in which males and females are similar and different; and how sex roles reflect 
social values and psychological knowledge。 

Key Issues 

How sex hormones affect gender behavior in rats; how the environment affects gender roles; 
reasons for self…segregation by gender among preschool children; artificial limits imposed on 
female gender roles; relationship between gender roles and depression; and how gender 
stereotypes in advertisements affect behavior。 

Demonstrations 

Sex differences in the play behavior of baby rats。 

Self…segregation by gender in a preschool。 

Socialization differences in gender…appropriate behavior and dress。 

Interviews 

Developmental neuroscientist Michael Meaney studies why male rats are more apt to engage 
in rough…and…tumble play; while female rats are consistently less aggressive and less 
physical。 

Eleanor Maccoby examines why children tend to socialize with other children of the same 
sex。 

Jean Block examines the differences in the socialization of male and female children and the 
effects on their relationships with other children of the same and opposite sex。 

PROGRAM 20: CONSTRUCTING SOCIAL REALITY 

Overview 

The factors that contribute to our interpretation of reality and how understanding the 
psychological processes that govern our behavior may help us to bee more empathetic 
and independent members of society。 

Key Issues 

Power of cognitive control; the Pygmalion effect; how teachers’ expectations affect children’s 
test scores; the development of prejudice in a grammar school classroom; and the principle of 
pliance as illustrated in television ads。 

375 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

Demonstrations 

The self…fulfilling prophecy study; or the Pygmalion effect。 

The principles of pliance illustrated with actual television advertisements。 

Jane Elliot’s blue…eyed versus brown…eyed case study。 

Students’ enhanced self…esteem and performance due to the jigsaw classroom。 

New Interview 

Steven Hassan looks at the ways cults use mind control methods to reshape people’s identity 

and reconstruct the way they perceive reality。 

Interviews 

Grammar school teacher Jane Elliot divides her classroom into a superior blue…eyed group 

and an inferior brown…eyed group to study the development and nature of prejudice。 

Robert Rosenthal studies how teachers’ expectations can affect children’s test scores。 

Elliot Aronson and Alex Gonzalez examine how cooperation rather than petition changes 
the way students see themselves and their peers。 

Robert Cialdini examines the principles of reciprocation; scarcity; authority; mitment; 

liking; and consensus in marketing and advertising。 

FILMS AND VIDEOS 

The Candid Camera Classics for Social Psychology consists of 16 episodes that I selected; with 
Allen Funt’s assistance; to dramatize many key social psychology topics; such as pliance; 
conformity; obedience; social influence; authority; power; morality; and bias in field surveys。 
Each of these creative gems is funny and entertaining; while teaching important messages about 
human nature。 Since they vary in duration from 2 to 6 minutes; a given episode can be used to 
launch a lecture as a thematic overview; to underscore a conclusion from a body of empirical 
research; or to provide a source for opening a discussion of the behaviors that the class and the 
instructor observed together。 The Candid Camera Classics e with an instructor’s guide (that I 
prepared with Allen Funt) that will assist teachers in getting the most mileage from using them; 
McGraw…Hill distributes this video (VHS) and a laser disk version。 For ordering information; call 
1…800…338…3987。 

Abilene Paradox (1984)。 VCFM; 27 minutes 

A gently humorous exposition of social psychological concepts such as groupthink and 
deindividuation。 Demonstrates how the cognitive processing of a well…intentioned; cooperating 
group can go far astray from the individual views of the members。 

Captive Minds: Hypnosis and Beyond (1985)。 JFMU; 55 minutes 

Explains how long…term conditioning takes place; such as how the Moonies hold on to their 
disciples; and how the Marine Corps generates such fierce loyalty。 The indoctrination methods of 
disparate institutions are surprisingly similar。 Recruits are isolated in unfamiliar environments; 
kept busy to the point of exhaustion; confused; frightened; and their sense of identity weakened。 
Over time; they bee vulnerable to suggestion。 They then readily submit to a strong 
authoritarian leader。 Reminds us that we are all vulnerable to psychological manipulations; some 
of which have social and political consequences。 

376 


CHAPTER 18: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIETY; AND CULTURE 

Conformity (1989)。 Insight Media; 30 minutes 

This program examines the pros and cons of conforming behavior; looking at its dangers as well 
as its utility in group decision making; classroom activities; and military regimentation。 It 
introduces reasons for conformity and investigates some of the variables that predict who is 
likely to conform。 

377 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

Conformity and Independence (1975)。 IU (MTI); 23 minutes 

Uses field and laboratory settings to look at social psychology’s main findings and principles in 
the area of conformity and independence。 Includes Sherif s experiments on norm formation; 
Asch’s experiments on group pressure; and Crutchfield’s variation; Milgram’s experiment on 
action conformity; Kelman’s three processes of pliance; and Moscovici’s theoretical views。 

Prejudice (1989)。 Insight Media; 30 minutes 

Showing four scenarios of prejudiced behavior; this program explores stereotypes and emotions 
underlying prejudice。 It discusses possible methods for reducing discrimination。 

Productivity and the Self…Fulfilling Prophecy: The Pygmalion Effect (1976)。 (CRM) MCGFY; 28 
minutes 

This film illustrates self…fulfilling prophecies in several settings; including social science and 
industrial management experiments。 Illustrations include placebo effects and bank runs during 
the depression。 

Reflections on 100 Years of Social Psychology。 (Available from California State University; 
Fresno; Department of Psychology; 5310 N。 Campus Drive; Fresno; CA 93740…0011。) 

An edited video of presentations by Elliot Aronson; Leonard Berkowitz; Morton Deutsch; Harold 
Gerard; Harold Kelley; Albert Pepitone; Bertram Raven; Robert Zajonc; and Philip Zimbardo to 
acpany a text memorating 100 years of experimental social psychology。 

Social Psychology (1990)。 Insight Media; 30 minutes 

Social psychology attempts to understand the myriad of social forces that influence our attitudes 
and actions。 This program discusses several research studies and findings on stereotyping and 
prejudice; attribution theory; and the power of social roles。 Philip G。 Zimbardo’s prison 
experiments are described and analyzed。 

War and Violence (1986)。 (FFHS); 52 minutes 

Demonstrates that poverty and violence go hand in hand。 Depicts inner…city Boston and a lesson 
on walking away from a fight。 Includes an interview with a young Hispanic in Oakland who 
talks about the machismo that underlies gang violence。 Explains that around the world violence 
is fueled by religion; nationalism; or race and made worse by politicians’ rhetoric。 Looks at the 
possibility of warfare today and the repercussion it has on the whole human race。 From the 
Human Animal Series; hosted by Phil Donahue。 

Th
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