how the behavior has been reinforced in the past。
5。 Humanistic Perspective： Humanistic psychology； a more optimistic
alternative to the psychodynamic and behaviorist models； suggests that
humans are innately good and that the main task of humans is to strive for
growth and development of their potential。
a） Humanists are phenomenologists in that they study the individual
actor’s personal view of events； focusing on the subjective world
experienced by the person； not an objective reality
b） Unlike behaviorism； humanistic psychology examines the human as a
whole （holistic approach） and does not attempt to reduce mental life to
elemental parts
c） How humanists study aggression： By examining maladaptive values；
social conditions； and goals that hinder growth and self…actualization
6。 Cognitive Perspective： In contrast to behaviorism； which focused primarily on
observable behavior； cognitive psychologists are most interested in human
thought and all the processes of knowing； such as attending； thinking；
remembering； and understanding
a） Cognitive psychologists view behavior as partly determined by past
experiences but also influenced by an individual’s inner world of
thought and imagination about the ways that the world could be。 To
cognitive psychologists； an individual’s subjective reality is more
important than the objective reality that behaviorists strive to capture。
b） Cognitive psychologists often use the puter as a metaphor for the
human mind and study higher mental processes such as perception；
memory； language use； problem solving； and decision making
c） How cognitive psychologists study aggression： By examining
thoughts associated with aggressive behavior and the influence of
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CHAPTER 1： THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE
viewing violence on television and video on attitudes toward
aggression
7。 Evolutionary Perspective： The evolutionary perspective extends the idea of
natural selection to explain how mental abilities evolved over millions of
years； just as physical abilities did
a） Evolutionary psychologists identify adaptive problems that early
humans may have encountered such as avoiding predators； finding
food； reproducing； and raising children； and then generate inferences
about the mental processes that might have evolved in response to
these problems
b） Evolutionary psychology is different from other perspectives in that it
has a much longer temporal focus （millions of years） than other
perspectives
c） How evolutionary psychologists study aggression： By examining the
possible evolutionary advantage that could have been derived from
aggressive behavior in the past
8。 Cultural Perspective： Cultural psychologists investigate cross…cultural
differences in the causes and consequences of behavior。 Partly in response to
American psychology’s reliance on white； middle…class college students as the
subject matter of psychology； cultural psychologists cross national boundaries
in an attempt to understand how cultural groups differ on standard measures
of mental processes and to understand what new measures and concepts
might more accurately capture and describe the mental life of various cultural
groups。
a） Important concepts investigated by cultural psychologists include
perceptions； human development； emotions； social norms； and the
notion of “the self”。
b） Cultural psychologists point out that psychological principles derived
from one cultural group cannot be automatically applied to other
cultural groups。 A famous example of this is the application of
psychodynamic principles； based on the traditional western roles of
mothers and fathers； to the Trobriand Islanders of New Guinea； for
whom parenting roles are much different and the mother is the main
authority figure。
c） How cultural psychologists study aggression： By examining how
aggression differs across cultures。 Questions cultural psychologists
might ask include： Are the same types of aggressive behaviors
performed with the same frequency in each culture？ How is
aggression dealt with culturally？ What types of aggression are
culturally sanctioned？ What does aggressive behavior mean in
different cultures？
IV。 What Psychologists Do
A。 Surveys suggest that there are over 500；000 psychologists worldwide。 Approximately 62；000 to
82；000 work as researchers。 Psychologists often specialize in subfields； such as clinical； cognitive；
personality； developmental； social； industrial； educational； sports； health； and cultural psychology。
When most people think of a psychologist； however； they think of a clinical psychologist who works
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
with clients with psychological problems and with problems of living。 Clinical psychologists； in
turn； are often confused with psychiatrists； who are medical doctors that have specialized in the
treatment of mental illness。
B。 Early in its history； research and practice in psychology was dominated by men。 In the last decade；
however； women have received the majority of Ph。D。’s awarded in psychology。
C。 Even when women were few in number； they still made substantial contributions to the field of
psychology。
1。 Margaret Washburn graduated from Cornell University in 1894 to bee the
first woman to receive a Ph。D。 in psychology。
2。 Mary Calkins pleted all the requirements for a Harvard Ph。D。； but Harvard
refused to grant her a Ph。D。 because she was a woman。 She later became the
first woman president of the American Psychological Association。
3。 Anna Freud； the daughter of Sigmund Freud； developed important advances in
the practice of psychoanalysis。
V。Psychology in the 21st Century： The Future Is Now
A。 Technological innovations influence both the questions that psychologists wish to answer and the
manner in which researchers are able to answer those questions。 Innovations in content and practice
of psychology continue to shape the field。
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 What do students hope to get from your class？ “Why are you here； today； in this course？” This is a
great way to start class； because it gets students involved in issues and ideas that interest them。
2。 What role does the scientific method play in contemporary psychology？ What are the limitations of
the scientific method； and are there any better alternatives available？ Students are often skeptical of
the scientific method and are eager to point out its flaws； such as the slow incremental progress it
generates； its reliance on measurable phenomena； its susceptibility to experimenter biases； and its
sterile methodology。 Students often fail to realize； however； that； although flawed； the scientific
method is the best tool we have to generate valid； reliable knowledge and that it has provided us
with a wealth of discoveries。
3。 Is the importance of psychological knowledge likely to increase or decrease in our postmodern
world？ Experimental psychology is still a baby； only a little over 100 years old。 As such； there is
incredible room for psychology to grow in terms of both sophistication and diversification。 As the
speed at which the world changes continues to increase； humans will be forced to respond to these
changes not through slow evolutionary changes； but through rapid psychological adjustments。
Evolution via natural selection may no longer operate fast enough to allow us to adapt to the
rapidly changing world that we have created。 Within this context； psychology； and psychological
adaptation； is certain to play a more prominent role。
4。 What psychological principles have bee part of the larger culture； have penetrated our thinking
and language？ Psychological principles permeate advertising； marketing； television； movies； sales；
self…help books； fashion； politics； and folk wisdom； to name a few； but students are often unaware of
this influence。 Pointing out this influence is a good way to keep your students’ interest。 For
example； the concept of “psychological stress；” so prevalent in our cultural landscape； was rarely
mentioned 50 years ago。
5。 Ask your students how many of them believe in determinism。 Then ask them how many of them
believe in free will。 Insist that they cannot have it both ways。 You will be surprised to find that
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CHAPTER 1： THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE
many； if not most； students believe in free will。 This is a terrific discussion starter； because it
conflicts with one of the fundamental assumptions of science and psychology； determinism。 You
might ask your students what science can hope to reveal if the world is not determined。 You might
also suggest that what feels like free will to us may be thinly disguised determinism。 This simple
discussion is often enough to change the manner in which students view themselves and the
manner in which they view those around them。
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
Clinical Psychology versus Psychiatry
Because clinical psychology； a subfield of psychology； and psychiatry are both professions that deal with
matters of mind and behavior； the public often confuses them。 The major distinction is in the type of
advanced training received in each profession。 Psychiatry is a medical specialty requiring an M。D。 and
additional study； while clinical psychology is considered part of an academic discipline that requires a
Ph。D。 from an accredited graduate program。 Although medical training is not required； clinical psychology
graduate programs are one of the； if not the； most difficult graduate programs to be accepted into； including
law； business； and medical school。 Psychiatrists’ medical training allows them to prescribe drugs and tends
to lead them to more biologically based explanations for abnormal behavior than those to which
psychologists often adhere。 Most states do not allow psychologists to prescribe medication； although some
are pushing for a change。 In general； psychiatrists are professional therapists who treat patients with
mental and emotional problems in either a hospital or private practice setting。 With few exceptions；
psychiatrists are more likely to be practiti