psychiatrists are more likely to be practitioners than researchers。
The basic model of training for psychiatrists is the medical model； which focuses on underlying
physiological problems； such as imbalances in neurotransmitters； brain lesions that can be treated
medically； or “mental disease” that can be cured in much the same way that an infection can be cured。
Clinical psychologists receive training in human behavior； they are taught to look at the chain of events
leading to specific behaviors and the resultant behaviors and outes； relative to the impact of those
behaviors on the individual client and on the client’s social environment。
Training in clinical psychology can prepare the student for a career as a researcher and scholar （often
bined with teaching at a university）； or in any number of areas of applied psychology。 Clinical
psychologists； like psychiatrists； are usually therapists； treating clients in either hospitals or private
practice。 Assessment of psychological disturbance by means of various standardized tests is one task of the
clinical psychologist。 A psychoanalyst may be a psychiatrist； a psychologist； or other college graduate that
has received specialized training at a psychoanalytic institute where the ideas and therapeutic methods of
Freud and his followers are taught。 It requires that the prospective therapist undergo personal
psychoanalysis as well。
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Class Exercise： Psychology’s Goals Applied to Matchmaking
（This class exercise was adapted from an Experience Break originally included in Psychology and Life； 15th
Edition； by Philip Zimbardo and Richard Gerrig。）
Based only on the descriptions provided below； ask your class to guess which pairs of the people listed
below belong together。 There are no right or wrong answers—tell them to go with their instincts。
David
Age： 21
Job： Car mechanic
Enjoys： Gourmet food
Dana
Age： 23
Job： Advertising executive
Enjoys： Movies
Chris
Age： 29
Job： Dog groomer
Enjoys： Gardening
Anita
Age： 35
Job： Lawyer
Enjoys： Roller coasters
Sandy
Age： 54
Job： Flight attendant
Enjoys： Hang gliding
Karen
Age： 18
Job： Sales clerk
Enjoys： Art museums
Jamie
Age： 20
Job： Secretary
Enjoys： Football
Pat
Age： 56
Job： Pediatrician
Enjoys： Opera
Tony
Age： 37
Job： College professor
Enjoys： ic books
Rahul
Age： 22
Job： Store manager
Enjoys： Scuba diving
Now lead your class in a discussion of their matchmaking decisions with respect to the goals of
psychology：
。 How would they describe the behaviors they engaged in while trying to settle on appropriate
matches？
Did they read all the descriptions before they began？ Did they find the decisions easy to make？ Did they
change their mind several times？
。 How would they explain their behavior？
What rules do they believe they used to match up the couples？ Were they most concerned about
age？ About occupations？ About leisure activities？ Did they use some bination of all three
descriptions？ What inferences did they make in their decisions； such as perceived gender？ What
does the factor（s） that they used most say about them personally and their selection of a partner？
。 How might their explanation allow them to predict which real…world relationships would succeed？
Suppose that based on their day…to…day observations of relationships； they focused on occupations
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while doing their matchmaking。 Are they willing to generalize from the predictions they made on
this task to predictions in the real world？ Can they begin to imagine the types of research they
might carry out to test those predictions？
。 Does their explanation allow them to control or improve their own relationship…seeking behavior or
to give better advice to others？
Have they learned from this exercise what matters most to them in a relationship？ What more
would they like to learn from research？
。 Could they learn something that would allow them to improve the quality of their own or other
people’s lives？
If their research reveals the factors that help determine which relationships； in general； will endure；
they should be able to improve the quality of people’s lives。
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILES
Wilhelm Wundt （1832–1920）
Born in Neckarau； Germany； Wilhelm Wundt was the fourth child of a Lutheran minister。 Despite ing
from a family that boasted numerous scholars； scientists； and physicians； Wundt initially was not a good
student。 After he dropped out of one high school； a teacher suggested that a reasonable goal for Wundt
would be a career in the postal service。 Wundt’s scholastic abilities improved； however； and in 1855 he
graduated at the top of his class in medical school。 Wundt then went to Berlin to study physiology with
Johannes Müller； and he subsequently decided to bee an experimental physiologist himself。 Wundt
then returned to the University of Heidelberg； where he worked as an assistant for Herman von Helmholtz。
It was at Heidelberg that Wundt taught his first course in psychology。 The year was 1862。
In 1879； at the University of Leipzig； where he held a chair in philosophy； Wundt established the Institute
for Experimental Psychology； the first laboratory whose formal purpose was the scientific investigation of
the human mind。 Wundt is one of the most prolific contributors to the field of psychology ever。 It is
estimated that between the years of 1853 and 1920； Wundt wrote 53；735 pages of text。 Wundt was not only a
voracious writer； he was also responsible for training numerous researchers； some of whom； such as
Edward Titchener； brought versions of Wundt’s psychology to America。
Sigmund Freud （1856–1939）
Sigmund Freud was born in Pribor； Czechoslovakia； in 1856。 Although Freud was a gifted student； it took
him eight years to finish his medical degree at the University of Vienna； partly because he was interested in
so many topics。 Freud first pursued a career as a neurologist； but financial concerns forced him into general
medical practice。 In cooperation with his friend Joseph Breuer； Freud began to treat hysterical women。 This
is unusual； because at the time there was no known cure for hysteria； which is now known as a conversion
disorder。 Through trial and error and feedback from his clients； Breuer and Freud developed the technique
known as psychoanalysis。 Its fundamental rule is honesty； clients must relay all thoughts and feelings
uncensored to the analyst。 Clients then follow their stream of thought wherever it may lead； a process
known as free association。 In the course of free association； clients often uncover traumatic events in the
past； and； upon reliving these events； often experience relief from their symptoms。 Freud’s first major work；
The Interpretation of Dreams （1900） detailed the process of dream interpretation； which he felt was the “royal
road to the unconscious。” Although it took six years to sell the first 600 copies printed； this work was
reprinted eight time during Freud’s lifetime。
Although the technique of psychoanalysis is perhaps Freud’s most important legacy； he made many other
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substantial contributions to psychology。 These include the recognition of the importance of sexuality and
unconscious processes； a fully developed system of personality； and an appreciation for the conflict
between individual desires and the constraints of society。 His work has influenced so many aspects of our
thinking that he is often not given full credit for the development of his ideas。 Freud’s many detractors are
quick to point out that his theories are not based on empirical research。 While this is true； just because they
lack empirical evidence does not mean that they are wrong； only that they are less likely to be right。 Because
of the breadth of his intellectual contributions； he remains the most cited psychologist in Psychology and
Life； 16th Edition； and most parable texts。
William James （1842–1910）
William James； often considered the father of American psychology； was born in New York City； but spent
much of his childhood traveling between the United States and Europe； where he attended several private
schools。 James’ interest in such varied fields as philosophy； religion； and science were cultivated at home in
an enriched environment shared with his brother Henry James； the famous author。 William James struggled
to find a vocation that mated his various interests； trying his hand at art （his paintings have appeared on
the cover of recent editions of the American Psychologist）； chemistry； and； finally； medicine。 He received his
M。D。 from Harvard in 1868。
In 1872； James began teaching physiology at Harvard； but was preoccupied by his ongoing and deep
interest in such philosophical issues as free will and determinism。 Though James considered himself a
temporary dabbler in the discipline of psychology； his two…volume textbook； Principles of Psychology （1890）；
stood as the field’s definitive textbook through the first half of this century。 It is still considered one of the
best…written texts on psychology and a source of many original ideas。 James’ contributions to psychology
include the notion of a stream of consciousness； the importance of habit and instinct； a plex theory of
the self； theory of emotion； and opening the boundaries of psychology to include topics such as religious
beliefs。
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TIMELINE
Yea Event
r
1781 Immanuel Kant published Critique of Pure Reason。
1811 Charles Bell and Francois Magendie discovered that there are two types of nerves： sensory and
motor nerves。
1827 Ludwig von Beethoven died。
1838 Johannes Müller articulated his “Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies。”
1846 Ernst Weber derived the quantitative relationships between subjective experience and physical
stimulation； known as Weber’s Law。
1848 Marx and Engels published the munist Manifesto。
1859 Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Natural Se