specific circadian rhythms。 In a cave with no clock； one man unwittingly made his day longer than
24 hours and consistently stuck to it for a month。 A young woman isolated in a room of perpetual
daylight later discovered that she was living a day slightly shorter than 24 hours。 Although this
film is old； the topic discussed has not changed。
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Learning and Behavior Analysis
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On pletion of this chapter； students should be able to：
1。 Describe the process of classical conditioning
2。 Explain the significance of temporal contiguity to the processes of conditioning and
learning
3。 Detail the phenomena associated with conditioning； including extinction； stimulus
generalization； discrimination； and spontaneous recovery
4。 Describe the process of operant conditioning
5。 Identify the significance of reinforcement contingency to behavioral response and the
resulting environmental changes
6。 Understand the distinction between the concepts of reinforcement and punishment
7。 Explain the differences in primary reinforcers and conditional reinforcers
8。 Describe the importance of reinforcement schedules； including characteristics of available
schedules
9。 municate significance of shaping and chaining to the process of operant conditioning
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I。 The Study of Learning
A。 What Is Learning？
1。 Learning is a process based on experience that results in a relatively
consistent change in behavior or behavior potential
a） A Change in Behavior or Behavior Potential
（i） Learning is often apparent from improvements in
performance
（ii） But what has been learned is not always evident in
performance； which leads to the learning…performance
distinction–the difference between what has been learned
and what is expressed or performed in overt behavior
b） A Relatively Consistent Change
（i） To qualify as learned； behavior must be performed
consistently over time。 For instance； if you have learned to
ride a bike； you are unlikely to forget how to ride a bike。
c） A Process Based on Experience
（i） Learning only happens through experience； through
interacting with the environment
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B。 Behaviorism and Behavior Analysis
1。 A recurring question of this chapter is how much of behavior is
learned； and how much of it is innate？
2。 One possible answer to this question is Radical Behaviorism； which
suggests that all behavior can be understood in terms of an organism’s
inherited characteristics and simple learned behavior
a） John Watson and B。 F。 Skinner argued that feelings； imagining
do not cause behavior； but rather are caused by environmental
stimuli。 They are the two most influential proponents of
behaviorism； which maintains that psychology should focus
on observable behavior。
b） Behaviorism； which will be covered more fully later； led to the
development of behavior analysis； the area of psychology that
focuses on environmental determinants of behavior
c） Behaviorists and behavior analysts often assume that
learning is conserved across species； that learning is similar in
all animal species。 Because of this assumption； animals are
often used in behaviorist research。
II。Classical Conditioning： Learning Predictable Signals
A。 Pavlov’s Surprising Observation
1。 First described by Ivan Pavlov； classical conditioning is a basic form of
learning in which one stimulus predicts the occurrence of another
event。 Organisms learn to associate one stimulus with the other。
a） Reflexes； unlearned responses such as salivation； pupil
contraction； knee jerks； or eye blinks； are at the core of
classical conditioning
b） An Unconditioned Stimulus （UCS） is any stimulus that
naturally elicits a reflexive behavior； such as salivating
c） An Unconditioned Response （UCR） is the behavior； such as
salivating； that is elicited by the UCS
d） A Neutral Stimulus is a stimulus that has no intrinsic meaning
to the organism。 When associated with the UCS； the Neutral
Stimulus can bee a Conditioned Stimulus （CS）–a previously
neutral stimulus that es to elicit a conditioned response。
e） A Conditioned Stimulus； after being paired with the UCS；
acquires the power to elicit the UCR。 When the UCR is elicited
by the CS； however； it is called the Conditioned Response
（CR）。
f） A Conditioned Response is produced by the presentation of the
CS
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g） In summary； nature provides the association between the
Unconditioned Stimulus and the Unconditioned Response。 By
repeatedly pairing the Conditioned Stimulus with the
Unconditioned Stimulus； the Conditioned Stimulus begins to elicit
a Conditioned Response。
B。 Processes of Conditioning
1。 Acquisition is the process by which the CR is first elicited by the CS and
by which elicitation gradually increases in frequency over repeated
trials
2。 Timing is critical in classical conditioning。 The UCS and the CS must
be presented close enough together so that they are perceived to be
associated。 Four types of temporal patterns are used in research。 They
are：
a） Delayed Conditioning； in which the CS es prior to and
stays on at least until the UCS is presented。 Usually the most
effective conditioning paradigm。 The optimal time interval
between the UCS and the CS varies depending on the nature
of the CS and the CR。
b） Trace Conditioning； in which the CS is turned off before the
UCS is presented。
c） Simultaneous Conditioning； in which the CS and the UCS are
presented at the same time。 Conditioning is generally poor
with this paradigm。
d） Backward Conditioning； in which the CS is presented after the
UCS。 Conditioning is generally very poor with this paradigm。
3。 Extinction is said to have occurred when the CR no longer appears in
the presence of the CS
4。 Spontaneous Recovery； reappearance of a weak CR when the CS is
presented again after extinction； without renewed pairing with the
UCS
5。 If the UCS and the CS are again paired after extinction； the UCS and
the CS association will be learned more quickly。 The difference in the
time taken to learn the association initially and to relearn the
association after extinction is called Savings。
6。 Stimulus Generalization is the extension of elicitation of the CR to
stimuli similar to the CS。 If the CS is a tone； a similar tone may produce
the CR。
7。 Stimulus Discrimination is the process by which an organism learns to
respond differently to stimuli that are distinct from but similar to the
CS
C。 Focus on Acquisition
1。 Robert Rescorla’s work demonstrated that contingency； not just
contiguity； is necessary for classical conditioning to occur
2。 In addition to contingency； the CS must reliably predict the UCS
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3。 The informativeness of the CS is also crucial to classical conditioning
4。 Blocking is the ability of the first CS to reduce the informativeness of
the second CS because of the organism’s previous experience
5。 A Neutral Stimulus will only bee a Conditioned Stimulus if it is
both appropriately contingent and informative
D。 Applications of Classical Conditioning
1。 Classical conditioning does not involve conscious thought； but does
involve emotions and preferences
2。 Fear conditioning involves the pairing of a neutral stimulus with a fear…
provoking object。 Fear conditioning is a powerful form of classical
conditioning； is resistant to extinction； and can occur after only one
pairing of the CS and the UCS。
3。 Learning to Be a Drug Addict
a） If a drug addict does drugs in the same ritualistic manner in
the same environment consistently； the ritualistic manner and
the environment themselves may bee CS。 They e to
predict the occurrence of the UCS； the drug； and they warn the
body that the drug is about to be done。 The body can then
prepare a pensatory response that allows the body； in an
effort to maintain homeostasis； to counteract partially the
impact of the drug。
b） Because of this pensatory response； if the drug is taken in
the same manner and in the same environment consistently；
greater doses of the drug are needed to maintain the same
high。 If； after doing drugs in the same environment repeatedly；
the drug user does drugs in a new environment； the CS （the
environment） will not be present； and the body will not
produce the pensatory response。 Because the body is not
prepared for ingestion of the drug； the drug user is much more
likely to overdose。
4。 Harnessing Classical Conditioning
a） Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged to explore the interaction
of psychology； the nervous system； and the immune system。
One goal of psychoneuroimmunology is to allow conditioning
to replace high doses of medications that have serious side
effects。 As with drug users for which the environment
bees a CS； the environment can be associated with
beneficial drugs so that the environment elicits a positive
conditioned response。
III。 Operant Conditioning： Learning About Consequences
A。 The Law of Effect
1。 The Law of Effect； developed by Edward Thorndike； simply states that
behaviors that are followed by pleasant； positive consequences are
likely to increase in frequency
2。 For Thorndike； learning involved an association between a stimulus
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and a response； a stimulus–response connection
3。 These stimulus–response connections are learned gradually and
mechanistically through blind trial and error
B。 Experimental Analysis of Behavior
1。 B。 F。 Skinner outlined a research program called the experimental
analysis of behavior； whose purpose was to discover the ways that
environmental conditions affect the likelihood that a given response
will occur
2。 Operant Conditioning procedures were developed by Skinner to allow
the experimental analysis of behavior and modify the probability of
different types of operant behavior as a function of the environmental
consequences they produce
3。 An Operant is any behavior that is emitted by an organism