consequences they produce
3。 An Operant is any behavior that is emitted by an organism and can be
characterized in terms of the observable effects it has on the
environment
C。 Reinforcement Contingencies
1。 A reinforcement contingency is a consistent relationship between a
response and the changes in the environment that it produces
2。 A reinforcer is any stimulus that； when made contingent on a response；
increases the probability of that response
a） A Positive Reinforcer is any stimulus that—when made
contingent on a behavior—increases the probability of that
behavior over time
b） A Negative Reinforcer is any stimulus that； when removed；
reduced； or prevented； increases the probability of a given
response over time
3。 Operant Extinction occurs as reinforcement is withheld
4。 A Punisher is any stimulus that—when it is made contingent on a
response—decreases the probability of that response over time。
a） A Positive Punisher is when a behavior is followed by the
delivery of an aversive stimulus
b） A Negative Punisher is when a behavior is followed by the
removal of an appetitive； or positive； stimulus
5。 Punishment always reduces the probability of a response occurring
6。 Reinforcement always increases the probability of a response occurring
7。 Discriminative Stimuli； through their associations with reinforcement
or punishment； e to set the context for that behavior
8。 The Three…Term Contingency is the sequence of discriminative stimulus–
behavior–consequence that Skinner believed could explain most human
behavior
9。 Behavior analysts assume that behaviors； even apparently self…
destructive and irrational behaviors； persist because they are being
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reinforced
10。 Secondary gains are subtle reinforcers； such as attention； sympathy； or
release from responsibility； that reinforce behaviors that may have
obvious associated negative consequences
D。 Properties of Reinforcers
1。 Primary reinforcers； such as food and water； are reinforcers that are
biologically determined
2。 Conditioned reinforcers are otherwise neutral stimuli that have； over
time； bee associated with primary reinforcers。 Money； grades；
smiles of approval； and gold stars can all act as conditioned
reinforcers。
a） Teachers and researchers often find conditioned reinforcers
more effective and easier to use than primary reinforcers
because：
（i） Few primary reinforcers are available in the classroom
（ii） Conditioned reinforcers can be dispensed rapidly
（iii） Conditioned reinforcers are portable
（iv） The reinforcing effect of conditioned reinforcers may be
more immediate
b） Token economies are contexts； such as psychiatric hospitals
and prisons； in which desired behaviors are explicitly defined
and in which tokens are given by staff for performance of
these behaviors。 The tokens can later be redeemed for
privileges or goods。
c） The Premack Principle suggests that a more probable activity
can be used to reinforce a less probable one。 According to the
Premack Principle； a reinforcer may be any event or activity
that is valued by the organism。
E。 Schedules of Reinforcement
1。 Reinforcers can be delivered according to either ratio or interval
schedules。 Each of these schedules can be used with a fixed or variable
pattern of reinforcement。
2。 The Partial Reinforcement Effect states that responses acquired under
schedules of partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than
those acquired with continuous reinforcement
3。 In a Fixed…Ratio Schedule （FR）； reinforcement es after the organism
has emitted a fixed number of responses。 FR schedules produce high
response rates because there is a direct correlation between
responding and reinforcement。
4。 In a Variable…Ratio Schedule （VR）； the average number of responses
between reinforcements remains constant； but the actual number of
responses between reinforcements varies around this average。 VR
schedules produce the highest response rates and the greatest
resistance to extinction。
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5。 In a Fixed…Interval Schedule （FI）； reinforcement is delivered for the first
response made after a fixed period of time has elapsed。 Response rates
under a FI schedule show a scalloped pattern。 Immediately after
reinforcement； response rates are low； but； as the time interval nears
expiration； response rates increase。
6。 In a Variable…Interval Schedule （VI）； the average time interval between
reinforcements is predetermined。 This schedule generates a moderate
but stable response rate。
F。 Shaping
1。 Shaping is a method of behavior modification in which successive
approximations to the desired behavior are reinforced。 For shaping to
be effective； what constitutes progress toward the target behavior must
be defined； and differential reinforcement schedules must be used to
refine behavior。
2。 Chaining is a technique used to teach sequences of actions。 In
chaining； the last response of the sequence is reinforced first。
3。 Each link in the behavior chain serves as a discriminative stimulus for
the next response line and as a conditioned reinforcer for the response
that immediately precedes it
IV。 Biology and Learning
A。 Biological constraints on learning are limitations on learning imposed by a species’ genetic
endowment
B。 Instinctual Drift is the process by which learned behavior drifts toward instinctual
behavior。 Instinctual Drift is understandable considering the species…specific tendencies
imposed by an inherited genotype。
C。 Taste…Aversion Learning is a powerful type of teaming that is learned through only one
pairing of a CS （the flavor） and its consequences （the illness）。 Although the flavor did not
cause the illness； the flavor is associated with the UCS； perhaps a virus； which did cause
the illness。
1。 Once taste…aversion learning has occurred； the organism will never
consume the flavor again
2。 The time between the presentation of the CS and when the organism
bees ill can be very long； 12 hours or more
3。 Certain types of animals are biologically predisposed to learn certain
associations
4。 Taste…aversion learning has practical aspects。 For example； coyotes
can be taught through taste…aversion learning to despise sheep meat。
Vgnitive Influences on Learning
A。 Cognition is any mental activity involved in the representation and processing of
knowledge； such as thinking； remembering； perceiving； and talking
B。 Animal Cognition
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1。 Researchers have demonstrated that it is not only classical and
operant conditioning that generalizes across species。 Cognition； to
some extent； does as well。
2。 Cognitive maps are internal representations of the physical
characteristics of the external environment。 For rats； cognitive maps
may indicate where food is located in a maze。 Spatial cognitive maps
can be used to：
a） Recognize and identify features in the environment
b） Find important goal objects in the environment
c） Plan an efficient route through the environment
3。 Conceptual Behavior； the cognitive ability to make conceptual
distinctions and to generalize about new concepts and categories； is
found is some animals as well as in humans
C。 Observational Learning
1。 Observational； or social； learning refers to learning done vicariously。 In
observational learning； an organism simply watches another perform
a behavior； notes the consequences； and modifies its own behavior
accordingly。
a） Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment play a
large role in observational learning
b） Observational learning is not unique to humans
c） Research has well documented children’s tendency to imitate
adult models
d） A model’s observed behavior is most influential when：
（i） The behavior is seen as having reinforcing consequences
（ii） The model is liked； respected； and perceived positively
（iii） There are perceived similarities between the model and
the observer
（iv） The observer is rewarded for paying attention to the
model’s behavior
（v） The model’s behavior is visible and salient
（vi） It is within the observer’s range of petence to imitate
the behavior
e） Because of the violent nature of many television shows；
individuals may learn antisocial behavior simply by
observing it on television。 Research suggests that there are
two major effects of filmed violence。
（i） Psychic numbing involves a reduction in both emotional
arousal and in distress at viewing violence
（ii） An increase in the likelihood of engaging in aggressive
behavior
f） Pro…social； as well as antisocial lessons； can be learned from
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television viewing。
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 Discuss how radical behaviorism； as proposed by Skinner； might be used to explain
cognitive development； because cognition is not an observable process and behaviorists
only studied observable processes。
2。 What if a child’s behavior was followed by random events； instead of predictable
consequences？ What behavioral outes might we expect to see with children in such a
situation？
3。 Given that “little Albert” was removed from Watson’s experiment before his having been
desensitized； how might his conditioned fear manifest itself in “big Albert”？
4。 Discuss with the class instances in which secondary gains can provide reinforcement for
behaviors that may be irrational and self…defeating。
5。 Discuss examples of the principle of observational learning in the animal kingdom。
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
A Summary of Some Interesting Aspects of Classical
Conditioning
1。 Any stimulus we can perceive has the potential to bee a conditioned stimulus。
2。 Perception of the CS can take place below the level of conscious awareness。
3。 Any response we make naturally can e to be elicited by a learned signal。
4。 These responses can be highly specific and simple （such as a muscle twitch or part of a
brain wave pattern） or gene