the end of his last cry or tantrum）。 This punishment involved the negative stimulus of loss
of opportunity for stimulation。 It could be removed by behaving in socially acceptable
ways。 When the time was up； Timmy was taken back to his regular activities without
ment on the previous episode。
Extinction： Less serious forms of undesirable behavior were ignored so that they would
have no reinforcing consequences。
Positive Reinforcement： Desirable behaviors such as cooperative play and following
instructions were directly praised； and at the end of some periods of desirable play Timmy
got a special treat。
To demonstrate the effectiveness of mother as behavior therapist； the psychologists first observed
Timmy’s behavior for a baseline period； and then instructed Mrs。 B。 to carry out her behavioral
contingency management program。 This sequence was then repeated。 Timmy’s aggressive and
disobedient behaviors were dramatically changed by manipulating their consequences。 His parents
and neighbors mented that Timmy behaved like a “different child。” During the first baseline
period Timmy followed only about 30 percent of instructions given to him； but a week later he was
following three…fourths of them。 On some days； Timmy never misbehaved； even not striking back
when another child hit him。 As Timmy’s problem behavior declined； his mother mented more
favorably about him； she felt she was a more effective mother and showed more affection for her
son。
WALDEN TWO
In Walden Two； B。 F。 Skinner presented a hypothetical munity based on behavioral principles。
Given what we know today about behaviorism； and cognitive theory； is such a munity feasible？
You might discuss with students some of the ideas presented in Walden Two and ask for their
opinions about these ideas。 Are they outdated？ Are they workable？ Have recent gains in knowledge
in cognitive theory and information processing made some of Skinner’s ideas obsolete？ Do students
118
CHAPTER 7： LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
even believe that such a munity is possible？ If so； how might they organize it differently than
Skinner’s munity？ （From Koss）
CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
Punishment and the Criminal Justice System。 Skinner and his followers identified several
conditions that must be met for punishment to be effective。 Your text discusses three of them： it must
be immediate； it must be consistent； and it must be sufficiently aversive but not overly aversive。
Some other conditions that make punishment more effective are that： it should be directly related to
the problem behavior so that it is clearly seen as a consequence of the behavior； it should be part of
a larger process in which the reason for the punishment is clearly explained and the desirable
behavior is clearly explained； the person should be rewarded for engaging in more desirable
behaviors。 In examining today’s criminal justice system in the United States； how many of these
conditions does it consistently meet？ In most cases； students agree that it does not meet many of
them； if any of them。 Perhaps this is contributes to the high recidivism rate we have in our justice
system。 What ideas do students have to utilize skinner’s conditions and perhaps improve the
effectiveness of the current system？
MORE ON BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Have students identify a behavior they would like to change。 Discuss behavior modification
principles with them and have them fill out Student Activity 5。4 （behavior modification） as part of
developing a plan to modify the behavior they identified。 It is important to review the qualities of a
good goal （i。e。 it is specific； it is behavioral； it is quantifiable； it is reasonably attainable）。 And since
choosing an effective reward is crucial to making a plan such as this work； review the qualities of a
good reward （i。e。 it should be something they really want； but can live without； in case they fail to
achieve their sub goals； it should be something they have plete control over）。 This can be a
useful demonstration of behavior modification as well as an activity that can really improve the
quality of some students’ lives。
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILES
Albert Bandura （b。 1925）
When Daddy spanks Johnny for misbehaving； he may inadvertently be providing Johnny with a
model of aggressive behavior that Johnny will incorporate into his own pattern of behavior。 This
discovery is only one of the important observations that Albert Bandura has brought to the
attention of psychologists and sociologists in recent years。
Graduating from the University of British Columbia in 1949 at the age of 24； Bandura went on to
earn his doctorate in clinical psychology at the State University of Iowa in 1952。 There； under the
guidance of Kenneth Spence； who also served as mentor to Neal Miller and John Dollard； Bandura
realized the need for more careful examination of the behavior modification process as it unfolds
during psychotherapy。 He drew from Hullian learning theory； Skinnerian behaviorism； and the
current theories of modeling and imitation to formulate his own groundbreaking social learning
theory—behavior modification broadened to a socially oriented context。
Bandura began his studies of aggression with children as participants。 In the course of his
experiments； he discovered that the kinds of behavior exhibited by parents and the attitudes they
expressed toward aggression were vital in determining their children’s behavior。 The implications
of his results were enormous； evoking concern among psychologists and the public over the impact
that excessive violence on television and other media was having on impressionable young minds。
119
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
Bandura synthesized these and other research results in Principles of Behavior Modification；
published in 1969。 An important and precisely written book； it challenged Skinner’s contention
that mental processes should not be considered in a science of behavior。 Bandura’s work won him
a Guggenheim Fellowship and election as president of the American Psychological Association in
1974。 A significant product of his fellowship was his classic text； Aggression： A Social Learning
Analysis。
One of those individuals who is truly happy only when engaged in a number of projects
simultaneously； Bandura is currently conducting research at several different levels。 On a broad
theoretical level； he is studying the development of self…efficacy and the relationship between
people’s moral codes and principles and conduct。 On a more practical level； he is developing the
use of modeling as an essential ingredient of psychotherapy。 Bandura published a pendium of
his research and thinking； Social Foundations of Thought and Action： A Social Cognitive Theory； in
1986。
Konrad Lorenz （b。 1903）
Lorenz obtained his M。D。 in 1928 and Ph。D。 in 1933 from the Anatomical Institute of the University
of Vienna。 Lorenz is widely regarded as the father of ethology； the study of animal behavior as
observed in the natural habitat。 His major contributions include research on imprinting and
aggressive behavior； for which he received the Nobel Prize。 Lorenz espoused a hydraulic model to
account for aggression； arguing that all stored energy； including aggressive energy； must eventually
be discharged。 His most influential work is On Aggression （1966）。
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov （1849—1936）
It is ironic that Ivan Pavlov； whose pioneering work laid the foundations for the behaviorist school
of thought in psychology； believed that psychology was “pletely hopeless” as an independent
science。 Pavlov rather saw his work on conditioning as a problem of physiology； a way in which to
discover the physical properties of the brain。
Born in 1849； the son of a village priest； Pavlov received his early education in a seminary school；
fully intending to follow his father into the priesthood。 Nevertheless； after reading several books on
physiology； he changed his mind and decided on a career in the natural sciences。 Though he
encountered resistance at home； he entered the University of St。 Petersburg and obtained his basic
degree in physiology in 1875。
Pavlov’s research for the next 20 years was concerned primarily with the study of digestive
processes； and it was for his work in this area that he won the Nobel Prize in 1904。 It was in the
course of directing a number of experiments on the digestive glands that he first became aware of
the significance of the conditioned response。 He had been working with dogs as experimental
animals in an effort to establish the precise function of saliva in the digestive process； when he
noticed that many of the dogs secreted saliva even before meat was administered to them。 He
quickly determined that this “psychic response” occurred whenever the dogs either had a
preliminary glimpse of the food or heard the approaching footsteps of the lab assistant who fed
them。
This was so unexpected a phenomenon that he decided to pursue the process as a physiological
problem； receiving generous funding for the enterprise when the Soviet government came to power。
The new regime was anxious to push forward biological and behavioral research； and there was in
Pavlov； Nobel laureate and brilliant experimentalist； a man who could bring the Soviet Union into
the vanguard of scientific research。 A large number of colleagues and assistants joined Pavlov in
his work； thus establishing the longest…lived research project in the history of psychology。 The
Pavlovian paradigm is still used as the major approach to the study of psychology in the Soviet
Union。
120
CHAPTER 7： LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
Burrhus Frederic Skinner （1904—1990）
B。 F。 Skinner was born in Susquehanna； Pennsylvania； the son of a lawyer。 He attended Hamilton
College where he majored in English； hoping to bee a writer。 During his last year at Hamilton；
Skinner sent some short stories he had written to the poet Robert Frost； hoping for some helpful
criticism。 Much to Skinner’s surprise； Frost replied enthusiastically； encouraging the young author