criticism。 Much to Skinner’s surprise； Frost replied enthusiastically； encouraging the young author
to pursue a writing career。 Skinner took the advice seriously and set aside a block of time following
graduation in which to apply himself to his chosen discipline。 In looking back on that year； Skinner
wryly mented that while he did indeed write well； he also discovered that he had nothing
important to say。
To remedy that situation； he returned to academia as a graduate student in psychology。 He had
done much reading during his year away from school； and in the course of it； had discovered the
works of John B。 Watson。 The story of Watson’s pioneering efforts excited Skinner’s interest and
thus determined his decision to study psychology。 Skinner was accepted at Harvard and earned
his Ph。D。 in experimental psychology in 1931。 He continued with postdoctoral work until 1936；
when he accepted a teaching position at the University of Minnesota。 Throughout this period；
Skinner had been formulating and testing his theories on conditioning。 So impressive were the
results he achieved in controlling the behavior of laboratory animals； the U。S。 government
employed him in a top…secret project during World War II。 Skinner was given funding to condition
pigeons to guide missiles directly down the smokestacks of warships。
After the war； Skinner did not hesitate to apply the techniques he had developed to human
participants。 On moving to Indiana University as chairman of its new psychology department； he
constructed his famous “air crib”； a sound…proofed； germ…free “box” enclosed in clear plastic and
intended as an environment in which infants could spend much of their time。 In 1948； Skinner
returned to Harvard University as a member of the faculty。 There he developed the Skinner Box； a
chamber in which animal behavior （particularly that of rats and pigeons） could be precisely
recorded and prepared for statistical analysis。 The apparatus had an immediate impact on
experimental laboratories in universities across the country。
Skinner became convinced that the learning techniques he had hit on with his methodology could
be translated to the environment of the classroom； and so spent most of the 1950s perfecting his
programmed teaching modules for schoolchildren。 With these； children could acquire information
and skills while being led through a series of questions； each of their correct responses eliciting a
reinforcing confirmation。
Throughout his career； Skinner published prolifically； and the American Psychological Association
honored him for his immense contribution with their Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award
in 1958。 Though he retired as the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard； Skinner did not
bee idle。 In the decade before his death； he published his autobiography； Particulars of My Life； a
book on aging； in 1983； and continued to be active； writing； and espousing the controversial brand
of behaviorism for which he became famous。
Edward Lee Thorndike （1874—1949）
Edward Thorndike was born in Williamsburg； Massachusetts； the son of a lawyer。 He graduated
from Wesleyan University in Connecticut in 1875； but showed no interest in psychology until he
read William James’ Principles of Psychology； after which he decided to study under James at
Harvard。 Thorndike’s initial experiments were conducted in the basement of James’ home。 When
James lost interest in experimental work； Thorndike left Harvard and obtained his Ph。D。 at
Columbia University。 There he conducted his famous experiments on cats in puzzle boxes。
121
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
Thorndike was among psychology’s most prolific and versatile scientists； publishing more than
500 monographs； books； and articles during his career。 He applied his considerable intellect to a
wide range of topics； including individual differences； attitudes； vocabulary； intelligence； learning；
and memory。 His many writings include the influential book； Animal Intelligence。
TIMELINE
Yea Event
r
1898 Edward L。 Thorndike proposed that learning was controlled by its consequences；
an idea that he termed the ”Law of Effect。”
1904 Ivan P。 Pavlov； a Russian physiologist； discovered classical conditioning。
1905 Albert Einstein developed his theory of relativity。
1909 Henry Ford began the mass production of the Model T； and auto travel became a
democratic experience。
1913 John B。 Watson published Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It； establishing his
brand of behaviorism as an approach to studying learning and behavior。
19141918
World War I was fought。
1927 Wolfgang K。hler coined the term “insight” to describe a kind of learning in which
the organism suddenly arrived at a solution to a problem。
1932 Edward C。 Tolman published Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men； a book
outlining one of the earlier cognitive theories of learning。
1938 B。 F。 Skinner published The Behavior of Organisms； a book describing the basic
principles of operant conditioning。
1943 Penicillin was discovered。
1953 B。 F 。 Skinner published Science and Human Behavior； a book that applied the basic
principles of operant conditioning to understanding human learning and
behavior。
1959 David Premack discovered that preferred activities can be used to reinforce less
preferred activities； an idea soon to bee known as the Premack Principle。
1961 Richard J。 Herrnstein proposed the matching law； the notion that behavior in a
choice situation matches the frequency of reinforcement associated with each of
the choice alternatives。
1962 Albert Bandura proposed his model of social learning theory； a cognitive account
of how imitation and modeling influence learning。
1966 John Garcia and Robert A。 Koelling discovered that animals learn to associate
some stimuli with the consequences of their behavior more quickly than other
stimuli； reflecting natural biases in how animals adapt to their environment。
1969 The first man landed on the moon。
1972 Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner proposed that in classical conditioning；
122
CHAPTER 7： LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
organisms learn the correlation between conditioned stimuli and reinforcement。
123
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS
Anderson； J。 R。 （1993）。 Problem Solving and Learning。 American Psychologist； 48（l）； 35–44。 Describes
Anderson’s ACT* theory； as an elaboration of Newell and Simons’ work； and suggests that it can
account for the acquisition of problem…solving skills。
Anderson； J。 R。 （1995）。 Learning and Memory： An Integrated Approach。 New York： John Wiley & Sons。
An excellent text on learning and memory。 Includes a through review of both historical and
contemporary research。 Emphasizes two themes； the neural basis of learning and memory and
the adaptive nature of learning and memory； throughout。
Bower； G。 H。 （1994）。 In Appreciation of E。 A。 Hilgard’s Writings on Learning Theories。 Psychological
Science； 5（4）； 181–182。 Review of Hilgard’s Conditioning and Learning and Theories of Learning； with
a view toward ecological validity in research。
Carey； S。； & Gelman； R。 （eds。） （1991）。 The Epigenisis of Mind： Essays on Biology and Cognition。
Hillsdale； NJ： L。 Eribaum & Associates。 The Jean Piaget Symposium series。 Consists of papers
presented at the symposium。
Klein； S。 B。 （1987）。 Learning： Principles and Applications。 New York： McGraw…Hill。 A well…written text
that presents material on both animal and human learning and memory processes。
Rescorla； R。 （1966）。 Predictability and Number of Pairings in Pavlovian Fear Conditioning。 Psychonomic
Science； 4（11）； 383–384。 Describes Rescorla’s classic experiment on the importance of contingency
to classical conditioning。
Smith； R。 M。； et al。 （1990）。 Learning to Learn across the Life Span。 San Francisco： Jossey…Bass。
pilation of papers from conferences held at Northern Illinois University。
Tighe； T。 J。 （1982）。 Modern Learning Theory： Foundations and Fundamental Issues。 Includes many
examples of shaping； including a baby’s first words； a child’s first attempts to print letters； and
the attempts of a person to remain upright while learning to skate。
Wilkie； D。 M。 （1995）。 Time–Place Learning。 Current Directions in Psychological Science； 4（3）； 85–89。 An
overview of time–place learning in animals and its relevance to their natural foraging habits； as
well as offering insights into a new framework for studying animals’ memory。
DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM 8： LEARNING AND CONDITIONING
Overview
Learning is the process that enables humans and other animals to profit from experience；
anticipate events； and adapt to changing conditions。 Explains the basic learning principles
and the methods psychologists use to study and modify behavior。 Also demonstrates how
cognitive processes such as insight and observation influence learning。
Key Issues
Pavlov’s discovery of classical conditioning； how classical conditioning can suppress the
immune system of rats； an instrumental and classical conditioning experiment by John Watson；
124
CHAPTER 7： LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
operant behavior and conditioning by B。 F。 Skinner； and conditioned therapy for agoraphobia。
Archival Demonstrations
Nobel Prize winner Ivan Pavlov discovers the concept of classical conditioning in an
experiment originally intended to study digestion and the action of the salivary glands。
Dr。 Robert Ader and colleague Nicholas Cohen condition rats to suppress their immune
systems in an experiment involving an artificial sweetener。
In the controversial experiment on classical and instrumental conditioning； John Watson
conditions a “little Albert” to fear a rat that he had once liked。
Psychologist B。 F。 Skinner examines the effects of positive and negative reinforcement on the
behavior of people and animals。
New Interview
Howard Rachlin looks at what developments have occurred in the field of operant condition
since the time of B。 F。 Skinner
FILMS AND VIDEOS
Animal Behavior： The Mechanism o