between different sounds
B。 Learning Word Meanings
1。 Naming explosion occurs at about 18 months
2。 Average 6…year…old understands about 14；000 words
3。 Children develop hypotheses about meanings of words； which may
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result in
a） Overextensions： incorrect use of words to cover a wide range of
subjects； such as using “doggie” for any four…legged animal
b） Underextensions： such as thinking “doggie” refers only to the
family pet
c） Hypotheses may be constrained by mutual exclusivity； in
which the child may act as if each object must have only one
label
4。 Bootstrapping occurs when children make use of what they already
know to acquire new meanings
C。 Acquiring Grammar
1。 Grammar is the rules by which units of meaning are bined into
larger units
2。 Chomsky argued that children are born with mental structures that
facilitate the prehension and production of language； thus
removing some parental pressures to teach grammar explicitly
a） Referential children’s vocabularies consist largely of nouns
b） Expressive children’s vocabularies consist largely of
formulaic expressions
c） Referential and expressive children appear to believe； at an
early age； in different functions for language； and follow
different paths to acquisition of grammar
D。 Language…Making Capacity
1。 Aspects of acquisition are believed to be biologically predetermined
2。 Children bring innate guidelines to the task of learning a particular
language
3。 Slobin defined a set of operating principles that constitute the child’s
language…making capacity
a） Operating principles take the form of directives to the child
b） Principles are encoded as part of the human genome。
Examples include：
（i） Telegraphic speech： use of two…word phrases which
lack functions
（ii） Extensions： the child’s attempts to try （in all cases） and
use the same unit of meaning （morpheme） to mark the
same concept； often resulting in over regularization
V。Social Development Across the Life Span
A。 Social development concerns how individuals’ social interactions and expectations
change across the life span
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B。 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
1。 Erikson proposed that there are eight stages of psychosocial
development across the life span
2。 Each stage presents a conflict for resolution。 Conflicts at each stage
must be successfully resolved in order to cope successfully with
subsequent stages
3。 Stages； crises； and approximate age range for each：
a） Trust vs。 mistrust： child’s sense of safety vs。 insecurity； birth to
1。5 years
b） Autonomy vs。 self…doubt： sense of self…efficacy vs。 feelings of
inadequacy； 1。5 to 3 years
c） Initiative vs。 guilt： confidence in self as an initiator vs。 feelings
of lack of self…worth； 3 to 6 years
d） petence vs。 inferiority： adequacy in basic social and
intellectual skills vs。 feelings of failure and lack of self…
confidence； 6 years to puberty
e） Identity vs。 role confusion： fortable sense of self vs。
fragmented； unclear sense of self； adolescent years
f） Intimacy vs。 isolation： capacity for mitment to another vs。
feelings of separation； aloneness； early adulthood
g） Generativity vs。 stagnation： concerns go beyond the self； to
society vs。 self…indulgence and lack of future orientation；
middle adulthood
h） Ego…integrity vs。 despair： sense of satisfaction with life vs。
feelings of futility and disappointment with life； later
adulthood
C。 Social Development in Childhood
1。 Socialization is the lifelong process through which an individual’s
behavior patterns； values； standards； skills； attitudes； and motives are
shaped to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular
society
a） Most important socializing agent is the family
b） Parental socialization goals for children range from
behavioral pliance with specific social rules to
internalizing of general social values
2。 Attachment
a） Attachment–the beginning of the process of social
development–is the establishment of a close emotional
relationship between a child and a mother； father； or other
regular caregiver
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b） Earliest function of attachment is ensuring of the infant’s
survival
c） In some nonhuman species； biology elicits attachment； such
as imprinting； in which the infant automatically fixes on the
first moving object it sees or hears
d） Human infants rely on plex proximity…promoting signals
to solidify adult—child bonding
e） Bowlby posits that infants will form attachments to
individuals who consistently and appropriately respond to
their signals
3。 Assessing the Quality and Consequences of Attachment
a） Secure attachment has powerful； lasting； beneficial effects；
which include enabling the child to：
（i） Learn various prosocial behaviors
（ii） Take risks
（iii） Enter into novel situations
（iv） Seek and accept intimacy in personal relationships
b） Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Test is widely used for assessing
attachment with infant response patterns falling into three
categories
（i） Securely attached children show some distress when
parent leaves； seek proximity； fort； and contact at
reunion； then gradually return to play
（ii） Insecurely attached…avoidant children seem aloof and
may actively avoid and ignore the parent on return
（iii） Insecurely attached…ambivalent/resistant children bee
quite upset and anxious at parent’s departure； cannot
be forted at reunion； showing both anger and
resistance to the parent but simultaneously
expressing desire for contact
c） Categorizations based on the Strange Situation have proved to
be highly predictive of a child’s subsequent behavior in a
variety of settings
4。 Parenting Styles and Parenting Practices
a） Researchers feel the most beneficial parenting style is at the
intersection of the dimensions of demandingness and
responsiveness
（i） Demandingness refers to parent’s willingness to act as
a socializing agent
（ii） Responsiveness refers to the parent’s recognition of the
child’s individuality
b） Parenting styles
（i） Authoritative parents make appropriate demands on
the child； but are responsive； keeping channels of
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munication open。 This style of parenting is most
likely to produce an effective parent…child bond
（ii） Authoritarian parents apply discipline with little
attention to the child’s autonomy
（iii） Indulgent parents fail to help children learn about the
structure of social rules in which they must live
c） Parents with the same overall style of parenting may place
different priorities on the various socialization goals they
consider important for their children
d） Parenting practices are a response to particular goals； with both
parents’ general attitudes and specific behaviors being
important for charting the life course of the child
e） A 35…year longitudinal study of parenting style revealed that
mothers’ treatment of their 5…year…old children was
significantly associated with social adjustment in the child
more than 30 years later
5。 Contact fort and Social Experience
a） （i） Cupboard theory proposed that infants bee attached to
parents because parents provide them with food； their most
basic physical need
b） （ii） Harlow proposed that infants attach to those who
provide them with contact fort and tested his theory with
infant macaque monkeys
（i） Separated infants from mothers at birth and placed
them in cages with access to one of two artificial
“mothers；” one made of wire and one of terry cloth
（ii） Wire mother provided food source； but babies spent
more time with terry cloth mother
（iii） Babies used terry cloth mother as fort source
when frightened and “base of operations” when
exploring new stimuli
（iv） Harlow also found that the bond of the infant
monkeys to the mother substitute was insufficient for
healthy social development。 Females deprived of
interaction opportunities with other monkeys had
difficulty forming social and sexual relationships in
adulthood
c） Suomi found that placing emotionally vulnerable infant
monkeys in the “foster care” of supportive mothers provided
the infants with coping skills and information essential for
recruiting support from other monkeys； as well as for
maintaining high social status within the group
D。 Social Development in Adolescence
1。 The Experience of Adolescence： The Myth of Adolescent “Storm and
Stress”
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a） “Storm and stress” disputed by cultural anthropologists
Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict as being nonapplicable to
many non…Western cultures
b） Data indicate that the few adolescents who do experience
serious maladjustment are likely to continue to do so as
adults； with a strong link between adolescent conduct
problems and adult criminality
c） Erikson considered the discovery of one’s true identity to be
the essential task of adolescence
2。 Social relationships
a） Peers
（i）Peers now pete with parents in shaping of attitudes
and behaviors
（ii） Social skills and roles are refined with peers
（iii） Peers bee an increasingly important source of
social support； with an increase in anxiety being
associated with peer rejection
（iv） Peer pressure to conform to peer values and behaviors
peaks around ages 12 to 13
b） Autonomy is the transition from parental authority to
reasonable independence on the part of the adolescent
（i） Transition may be difficult for parents
（ii） Parent…child relationships may have more built…in
potential for conflict than do peer relationships
3。 Future Goals
a） Setting goals for the future involves current appraisal of one’s
abilities and interests
b） Selection of future occupation involves tasks central to
identity formation； including awareness of alternatives； and
making and following through on choices
E。 Social Development in Adulthood
1。 Intimacy
a） Intimacy refers