making and following through on choices
E。 Social Development in Adulthood
1。 Intimacy
a） Intimacy refers to the capacity to make a full mitment to
another person； sexually； emotionally； and morally
b） Intimacy occurs in friendships as well as romantic
relationships； and requires openness； courage； ethical
strength； and usually some promise of one’s personal
preferences
c） Research confirms Erikson’s supposition that social intimacy
is a prerequisite for psychological well…being across the adult
life stages
d） Young adulthood is the time in which many people enter into
marriages or other stable relationships； often deciding to
include children in their lives
（i） Males and females make the transition to parenthood
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in different ways
（ii） Arrival of children may push parents into more
traditional sex…role behaviors
（iii） For some couples； marital satisfaction erodes due to
conflicts as children pass through their own
adolescent years
（iv） Parents may enjoy their children most when the
children no longer live at home
e） Research indicates that approximately two out of three
couples now married will divorce； but consequences of
remaining in an unsatisfying marriage are more unfortunate
for females than males
（i） Marital dissatisfaction for women often results in
impairment of both physical and mental health
（ii） Men almost always benefit from marriage； even a bad
marriage； while women suffer in bad marriages
（iii） Women are more likely to care for an unhealthy；
elderly husband—and go on to a period of mourning
his death and of financial insecurity
f） In later life； the balance of social interactions shifts somewhat；
from family to friends
（i） The elderly interact with fewer people； but the nature
of the interactions change in order for intimacy needs
to be met
（ii） Selective social interaction theory proposes that as we
age； we bee more selective in choosing social
partners who satisfy our emotional needs
2。 Generativity
a） Generativity refers to mitment beyond oneself to family；
work； society； or future generations
b） Erikson’s last crisis of adulthood is the conflict between ego…
integrity and despair
c） Most adults review their lives with a sense of wholeness and
satisfaction
3。 The Cultural Construction of Late Adulthood： addresses cultural
beliefs and expectations about later life； the stereotypical depictions of
the elderly
a） Overall stereotype is negative
b） Stereotype may serve to change the lifestyle experience of
older adults for the worse
c） Negative expectations of their performance by the elderly may
lead to impaired performance
d） Caretakers may artificially bring about patterns of increased
dependence via the dependency…support script
e） Ageism is prejudice against older people that leads to
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discrimination that limits their opportunities； isolates them；
and fosters negative self…images
VI。 Gender Development
A。 Early human differences perceived by children are entirely social—they sense sex
differences before acquiring anatomical knowledge
B。 Sex and Gender
1。 Sex differences are biologically based characteristics that distinguish
males from females
a） Include different reproductive functions and differences in
anatomy and hormones
b） Differences are universal； biologically determined； and
unchanged by social influence
c） Over time； sex differences have led to development of
traditional social roles for males and females
2。 Gender is a psychological phenomenon； referring to learned； sex…
related behaviors and attitudes
3。 Gender identity is the individual’s sense of maleness or femaleness；
and includes awareness and acceptance of one’s own sex
a） Develops at an early age
b） Is important to child’s psychological well…being
C。 The Acquisition of Gender Roles
1。 Gender roles are patterns of behavior regarded as appropriate for males
and females within a given society
a） Provide basic definitions of masculinity and femininity
b） Much of what is considered masculine or feminine is
culturally determined
c） Gender…role socialization begins at birth； with parental
responses to the infant being based on gender…role stereotypes
VII。 Moral Development
A。 Morality is a system of beliefs； values； and underlying judgments about the rightness or
wrongness of human acts
B。 Kolhberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning
1。 Kohlberg founded his study of moral development on the study of
moral reasoning； the judgments people make about what courses of
action are correct or incorrect in particular situations
2。 Kohlberg’s theory predicated on Piagetian cognitive…development
theory （i。e。； as the child progresses through the stages of cognitive
growth； he/she assigns differing relative weights to the consequences
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of an act and to the actor’s intentions）
3。 Each of Kohlberg’s levels and stages is characterized by a different
basis for making moral judgments； he was interested in the course of
action involved in making a moral decision； not the decision itself
a） Level 1： Preconventional Morality
（i） Stage 1： Pleasure–pain orientation； reasons for
behaviors is to avoid pain or not get caught
（ii） Stage 2： Cost–benefit orientation； reciprocity； reasons
for behaviors are to obtain rewards
b） Level II： Conventional Morality
（i） Stage 3： Good child orientation； behavior is enacted to
gain acceptance and avoid disapproval
（ii） Stage 4： Law and order orientation； behavior is
enacted to follow the rules； and avoid censure by
authorities
c） Level III： Principled Morality
（i） Stage 5： Social contract orientation； to promote social
welfare
（ii） Stage 6： Ethical principle orientation； to achieve
justice and avoid self…condemnation
（iii） Stage 7： Cosmic orientation； to be true to universal
principles； feeling oneself part of a cosmic direction
that transcends social norms
4。 Four Principles Govern Kohlberg’s Stage Model：
a） An individual can be at only one of the indicated stages at a
given time
b） Everyone goes through the stages in a fixed order
c） Each stage is more prehensive and plex than the
preceding one
d） The same stages occur in every culture
5。 Stages 1 through 3 appear to parallel the course of cognitive
development； with most children reaching stage 3 by age 13； with
much of the controversy with Kohlberg’s theory aimed at stages 4
through 7
6。 Moral Reasoning in Adolescents and Adults
a） Kohlberg’s view was that moral development would continue
in steady progression； beyond level 3； however； not all
individuals attain stages 4 through 7
b） Many adults never reach stage 5； and few go beyond it
c） Stages 4 through 7 are not found in all cultures and seem
more associated with advanced education and increased
verbal ability in Western cultures； features that should not be
prerequisites for moral achievement
C。 Gender and Cultural Perspectives on Moral Reasoning
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1。 Content of latter stages appears subjective
2。 Understanding each successive latter stage as “more prehensive
and sophisticated than the preceding” is difficult
3。 Latter stages have been criticized because they do not recognize that
adult moral judgments may reflect different but equally moral
principles
a） Gilligan argued Kohlberg’s work was biased in that his
original sample was all male
b） Kohlberg’s research overlooked potential differences between
habitual moral judgments of males and females
c） Gilligan proposed female’s moral development was based on
a standard of caring for others； and progressing to a stage of
self…realization； whereas males base their reasoning on a
standard of justice
4。 Though Gilligan’s contribution is valued； later research suggests she
is incorrect to identify unique styles of moral reasoning for males and
females
a） Researchers dispute whether gender differences in moral
reasoning exist
b） Alleged gender differences may be consequences of the
difference in social situations that arise in the lives of males
and females
c） Studies of gender differences in moral behaviors have found
no consistent differences
5。 Adult moral reasoning may best be characterized as a mix between
considerations of justice and considerations of caring； with the mix
remaining in place over most of the life span
a） Moral judgments are affected by general changes in adult
cognition。
b） A relevant change in late adulthood is the individual’s
shifting the basis for judgments away from the details of
specific situations； and toward the use of general principles
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 In several well…publicized cases； judges have returned custody of children to the biological
parents； removing the child from his or her adoptive parents or foster parents。 This would
seem to indicate that there is still a sense of ownership of children in the eyes of the law。
What do such decisions indicate about the status of the rights of the individual child in
such cases？ Whose “best interests” and rights are the courts protecting？
2。 Does the class consider adolescence a concept created by developmental psychologists and
socioeconomic conditions； rather than an actual stage of development？ What overall
societal impact might we see if children today went to work at age 10 or 12； rather than
remaining in school until they reach 17 or 18 years of age？ What was the societal impact of
work rather than education in years past？ What other developmental categories could be
reframed today； or may need to be reframed in the future？
3。 Many elderly individuals develop paranoid beliefs。 Some lay persons as well as
professionals assume this to be a function of the physical deterioration of the brain due to
encroaching senility。 What alternative psychological explanation could explain w