《心理学与生活》

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心理学与生活- 第85部分


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(ii) Details mental retardation and personality 
disorders; i。e。; dysfunctional patterns of perceiving 
and responding to the world 
c) Axis III。 General Medical Conditions 

(iii) Codes physical problems that are relevant to 
understanding or treating an individual’s 
psychological disorders; as detailed on Axes I and II 
d) Axis IV。 Psychosocial and Environmental Problems 

(iv) Codes psychosocial and environmental stressors 
that may impact diagnosis and treatment of an 
individual’s disorder and his or her likelihood of 
recovery 
e) Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning 

(v) Codes the individual’s overall level of current 
functioning in the psychological; social; and 
occupational domains 
5。 Full diagnosis; in accordance with the DSM system; involves 
consideration of each axis 
6。 Methods used to organize and present categories have shifted with 
each revision of the DSM。 DSM…III…R felt neurotic disorders and 
psychotic disorders had bee too generalized in meaning to 
remain useful as diagnostic categories。 
7。 In addition to the diagnoses on the five traditional axes; DSM…IV…TR 
provides an appendix that describes about 25 culture…bound 
syndromes–recurrent; locality…specific patterns of aberrant behavior 
and troubling experience that may or may not be likened to a 
particular DSM…IV…TR diagnostic category。 Such syndromes include: 
a) Boufée delirante: A sudden outburst of agitated and 
aggressive behavior; marked confusion; and psychomotor 
excitement (West Africa and Haiti) 

b) Koro: An episode of sudden and intense anxiety that the 
penis will recede into the body and possibly cause death 
(South and East Asia) 

c) Taijin kyofusho: An individual’s intense fear that his or her 

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body; its parts or its functions; displease; embarrass; or are 
offensive to other people (Japan) 

III。 Major Types of Psychological Disorders 
A。 Important Disorders not Covered in Psychology and Life。 
1。 Substance…use disorders include both dependence on and abuse of 
alcohol and drugs 
2。 Somatoform disorders involve physical symptoms that arise without a 
physical cause 
3。 Sexual disorders involve problems with sexual inhibition or 
dysfunction; and deviant sexual practices 
4。 Disorders usually first diagnosed in infancy; childhood; or adolescence 
include mental retardation; munication disorders (such as 
stuttering); and autism 
5。 Eating disorders; such as anorexia and bulimia。 
6。 Some individuals experience more than one disorder at some point 
in their life span; this is known as orbidity; the co…occurrence of 
diseases 
B。 Anxiety Disorders: Types 
1。 Involve the experiencing of fear or anxiety in certain life situations 
when that anxiety is problematic enough to interfere with the ability 
to function or to enjoy life 
2。 Generalized Anxiety Disorder: manifests itself as feeling anxious or 
worried most of the time; when not faced with any specific danger。 
Presenting symptoms must include at least three of the following: 
a) Muscle tension 

b) Fatigue 

c) Restlessness 

d) Poor concentration 

e) Irritability 

f) Sleep difficulties 

3。 Panic Disorder manifests in unexpected; severe panic attacks that 
begin with a feeling of intense apprehension; fear; or terror。 Attacks 
are unexpected; in the sense that they are not evoked by something 
concrete in the situation。 One manifestation of panic disorder is 
agoraphobia; an extreme fear of being in public places or open spaces 
from which escape may be difficult or embarrassing。 
4。 Phobias are diagnosed when the individual suffers from a persistent 
and irrational fear of a specific object; activity; or situation; when 
that fear is excessive and unreasonable; given the reality of the 
threat。 Phobias interfere with adjustment; cause significant distress; 
and inhibit necessary action toward goals。 DSM…IV…TR defines two 
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categories of phobias。 

a) Social phobia is a persistent; irrational fear; arising in 
anticipation of a public situation in which an individual can 
be observed by others 

b) Specific phobias occur in response to several different types of 
objects or situations 

5。 Obsessive…pulsive Disorder is an anxiety disorder in which the 
individual bees locked into specific patterns of thought and 
behavior。 It may best be defined in terms of its ponent parts 
a) Obsessions are thoughts; images; or impulses that recur or 
persist despite the individual’s efforts to suppress them。 
They are experienced as an unwanted invasion of 
consciousness; seem to be senseless or repugnant; and are 
unacceptable to the individual experiencing them。 

b) pulsions are repetitive; purposeful acts performed 
according to certain rules; in a ritualized manner; and in 
response to an obsession。 The behavior is performed to 
reduce or prevent the disfort associated with some 
dreaded situation; but it is either unreasonable or clearly 
excessive。 

6。 Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD); an anxiety disorder; is 
characterized by the persistent reexperiencing of traumatic events 
through distressing recollections; dreams; hallucinations; or 
flashbacks 
C。 Anxiety Disorders: Causes 
1。 Biological: This view posits a predisposition to fear whatever is 
related to sources of serious danger in the evolutionary past; thus the 
preparedness hypothesis suggests that we carry an evolutionary 
tendency to respond quickly and “thoughtlessly” to once…feared 
stimuli。 Some evidence is available linking this disorder to 
abnormalities in the basal ganglia and frontal lobe of the brain。 
2。 Psychodynamic: This model begins with the assumption that 
symptoms of anxiety disorders derive from underlying psychic 
conflicts or fears; with the symptoms being attempts to protect the 
individual from psychological pain 
3。 Behavioral explanations of anxiety focus on the way symptoms of 
anxiety disorders are reinforced or conditioned 
4。 Cognitive perspectives concentrate on the perceptual processes or 
attitudes that may distort a person’s estimate of the danger he or she 
is facing。 Individuals suffering from anxiety disorders may interpret 
their own distress as a sign of imminent danger 
D。 Mood Disorders: Types 
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CHAPTER 15: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 

1。 A mood disorder is an emotional disturbance; such as a severe 
depression or depression alternating with manic states 
2。 Major Depressive Disorder occurs so frequently that it has been called 
the “mon cold” of psychopathology; virtually everyone has 
experienced elements of this disorder at some time during their 
lives。 
3。 Bipolar depression is characterized by periods of severe depression; 
alternating with manic episodes 
E。 Mood Disorders: Causes 
1。 Biological: Growing evidence suggests that the incidence of mood 
disorder is influenced by genetic factors 
2。 Psychodynamic: This approach purports the causal mechanism(s) to 
be unconscious conflicts and hostile feelings originating in 
childhood。 Freud believed the source of depression to be displaced 
anger; originally directed at someone else; and now turned inward 
against the self 
3。 Behavioral: This approach focuses on the impact and effects of the 
amount of positive reinforcement and punishments the individual 
receives。 Lacking a sufficient level of reinforcement; the individual 
feels sad and withdraws from others。 
4。 Two Cognitive Theories: 
a) Beck argued that depressed people have negative cognitive 
sets; which promote a pattern of negative thought that 
clouds all experiences and produces the other characteristic 
signs of depression。 Negative thought patterns include 
negative views of (1) themselves; (2) ongoing experiences; 
and (3) the future。 

b) Seligman’s learned helplessness paradigm; the “explanatory 
style view of depression; in which individuals believe 
(correctly or not) that they have no control of future 
outes of importance to them。 Learned helplessness is 
marked by deficits in three areas: (1) motivational; (2) 
emotional; and (3) cognitive。 

F。 Gender Differences in Depression 
1。 Women suffer from depression twice as often as men 
2。 Research suggests differences in response style may originate in 
childhood 
a) When women experience sadness; they tend to think about 
causes and implications of their feelings; a ruminative 
response style with an obsessive focus on problems; thus 
increasing depression。 

b) Men attempt actively to distract themselves from negative 

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feelings through physical exercise or by focusing on 
something else。 Other research has also revealed a 
maladaptive tendency for men to distract themselves 
through use of alcohol; drugs; or violent behaviors。 

G。 Suicide 
1。 Patterns of suicide 
a) The 8th leading cause of death in the U。 S。; 3rd among the 
young; and 2nd among college students 

b) Five million living Americans have attempted suicide 

c) For each pleted suicide; there are 8 to 20 attempts 

d) Suicide usually affects at least 6 other individuals 

2。 Every 9 minutes; a teenager attempts suicide; every 90 minutes one 
succeeds 
3。 Suicide rates for African American youths; of both sexes; are roughly 
half that for white youths。 These racial differences persist across the 
life span。 
4。 Gay and lesbian youth are at higher risk than are other adolescents 
5。 Youth suicide is not an impulsive act。 It typically occurs as the final 
stage of a period of inner turmoil and outer distress。 
H。 Personality Disorders 
1。 A personality disorder is a chronic; inflexible; maladaptive pattern of 
perceiving; thinking; or behaving that can seriously impair the 
individual’s ability to function and can cause significant distress。 
Examples include: 
a) Paranoid personality disorders: Show a consistent pattern of 
distrust and suspiciousness about the motives of people with 
whom they interact。 These individuals believe others are 
trying to harm or deceive them they may find unpleasant 
meanings in harmless situations; and expect their friends; 
spouses; or partners to be disloyal。 
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