meanings in harmless situations； and expect their friends；
spouses； or partners to be disloyal。
b） Histrionic personality disorder： Characterized by patterns of
excessive emotionality and attention seeking。 Sufferers offer
strong opinions； with great drama； but with little evidence to
back their claims。 They react to minor occasions with
overblown emotional responses。
c） Narcissistic personality disorders： Manifests grandiose sense of
self…importance； preoccupation with fantasies of success or
power； and need for constant admiration。 These individuals
often have problems in interpersonal relationships； tending
to feel entitled to special favors without reciprocal
obligation。 They exploit others for their own purposes and
experience difficulty in realizing and experiencing how
others feel。
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d） Antisocial personality disorder： Manifested by a long…standing
pattern of irresponsible or unlawful behavior that violates
established social norms。 These individuals often do not feel
shame or remorse for their hurtful behaviors。 A violation of
social norms begins early in life； the actions are marked by
indifference to the rights of others。
I。 Dissociative Disorders
1。 Consist of a disturbance in the integration of identity； memory； or
consciousness。 Psychologists believe that in dissociative disorders
the individual escapes from his or her conflicts by giving up
consistency and continuity of the self
2。 Dissociative amnesia refers to the forgetting of important personal
experiences； caused by psychological factors in the absence of any
organic dysfunction
3。 Dissociative identity disorder； formerly known as multiple personality
disorder； is a dissociative mental disorder in which two or more
distinct personalities exist within the same individual。 May involve
chronic； severe abuse during childhood。
IV。 Schizophrenic Disorders
A。 Schizophrenic Disorders are a severe form of psychopathology in which personality
seems to disintegrate； thought and perception are distorted； and emotions are blunted
1。 Hallucinations occur often； and are assumed real
2。 Delusions； false or irrational beliefs maintained regardless of
evidence to the contrary； are mon
3。 Other manifestations
a） Incoherent language； word salad
b） Flattened or inappropriate emotions
c） Disorganized psychomotor behavior
4。 Categories of symptoms
a） Positive symptoms： hallucinations； delusions； incoherence；
and disorganized behavior are prominent during the acute
or active phases。
b） Negative symptoms： social withdrawal and flattened
emotions bee more apparent during the chronic phase。
B。 Major Types of Schizophrenia
1。 Disorganized type： Individual displays inappropriate behavior and
emotions； incoherent language。
a） Incoherent thought patterns and grossly bizarre and
disorganized behavior
b） Emotions are flattened or situationally inappropriate；
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language may be incoherent； munications with others
break down
c） If present； hallucinations and delusions lack organization
around a central theme
2。 Catatonic type： Individual displays frozen； rigid； or excitable motor
behavior
a） Major feature is disruption in motor activity
b） Also characterized by extreme negativism and resistance to
all instructions
3。 Paranoid type： Individuals suffer plex and systematized
delusions； focused around a specific theme； often delusions of
grandeur or persecution。 Symptom onset is usually later in life than
in other types of schizophrenia。 Manifestations include：
a） Delusions of persecution； in which the individual believes
he/she is being constantly spied upon； plotted against； or is
in mortal danger
b） Delusions of grandeur； in which the individual believes
he/she is an important or exalted being； such as Jesus Christ
c） Delusional jealousy； in which the individual bees
convinced （without due cause） that his or her mate is
unfaithful
4。 Undifferentiated type： The schizophrenic “grab…bag；” describing the
individual who exhibits
a） Prominent delusions； hallucinations； incoherent speech； or
grossly disorganized behavior that fit criteria of more than
one type； or of no clear type
b） Hodgepodge of symptoms fails to differentiate clearly
among the schizophrenic reactions。
5。 Residual type： Individuals have typically experienced a major episode
within the past； but are currently free of major positive symptoms。
a） Ongoing presence of the disorder is signaled by minor
positive symptoms or negative symptoms； such as flattened
affect
b） Diagnosis of residual type may indicate the individual’s
disorder is entering a stage of remission； being dormant
C。 Causes of Schizophrenia
1。 Genetic Approaches
a） Disorder tends to run in families； with increased risk if both
parents have the disorder
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b） Probability of identical twins both having the disorder is
approximately 3 times greater than is the probability for
fraternal twins
c） Diathesis…stress hypothesis suggests genetic factors place the
individual at risk； but environmental stressors must impinge
for the potential risk to be manifested
2。 Brain Function and Biological Markers
a） Magnetic resonance imaging （MRI） may be used to show
brain structures （i。e。； ventricles） that are enlarged by up to
50％ in individuals with schizophrenia
b） Imaging also reveals that individuals with schizophrenia
may have differing patterns of brain activity than those
found in normal controls
c） The dopamine hypothesis posits an association with an excess
of the neurotransmitter dopamine； at specific receptor sites
in the central nervous system （CNS）。
d） A biological marker is a “measurable indicator of disease that
may or may not be causal”； that is； it may correlate with the
disorder。 No known marker perfectly predicts； or brings
about； schizophrenia。
3。 Family Interaction and munication
a） Hope remains for identification of an environmental
circumstance that increases the likelihood of schizophrenia
b） Research does offer evidence for theoretical position that
emphasizes the influence of deviations in parental
munications on the subsequent development of
schizophrenia
c） Research indicates family factors do play a role in
influencing functioning after the symptoms appear
V。The Stigma of Mental Illness
A。 The Problem of Stigma
1。 Individuals with psychological disorders are frequently labeled as
deviant； though this label is not true to prevailing realities
2。 Stigma is a mark or brand of disgrace； in the context of psychology； it
is a set of negative attitudes about a person that sets him or her apart
as unacceptable”
3。 Negative attitudes toward the psychologically disturbed； which
e from many sources； bias perceptions of and actions toward
these individuals
4。 Mental illness can bee one of life’s self…fulfilling prophecies
5。 Research suggests that people who have contact with individuals
with mental illness hold attitudes less affected by stigma
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 What if a well…controlled study showed that “crazy” people were more creative； happier；
and lived longer than “normal” or “sane” people？ Ask the class how this knowledge
might change their individual therapies of abnormal or pathological behavior。
2。 What if someone were to give each member of your class a psychiatric diagnostic label
and offer each of them 100；000 if they would go into a mental hospital ward and live up
to their label for a month without being discharged as either cured or normal？ How well
do class members think they would do？ What specific acts would they engage in？ Have
a student randomly select a diagnostic label from the chapter and then have the class list
the specific actions they would perform to demonstrate the accuracy of the diagnosis。
What does “abnormal” actually mean？ Ask the class to give you an operating definition。
Does it mean “crazy”？ “Different”？ “Nuts”？ See how many “definitions” of the term
you can get and be ready for responses you would never have imagined！
4。 Because of the deinstitutionalization of the mentally ill that occurred in the 1960s and the
ensuing lack of munity health support for that population； we are confronted with
the probability that many of the “homeless” may actually be schizophrenics who are no
longer on medication。 Does this seem to be a plausible explanation for the increase in
homeless individuals？
5。 Should the mentally ill be forced to take medication if medication exists that will
ameliorate their symptoms？ Schizophrenics often consider the voices that they hear gifts
from God。 Should we deprive them of this gift？ Should they be “locked up” in an
institution where they could receive sound nutrition and protection from the elements？
Are they “better off’ on the streets？ What are the ethical issues involved in each of the
above situations？
6。 How valid does the class think the “preparedness hypothesis” is as an explanation for
phobic disorders？ If we “carry around” an evolutionary tendency to jump when startled
（i。e。； “to respond quickly and ‘thoughtlessly’ to once…feared stimuli”）； how did that
tendency actually get to us？ Think about phobias in terms of the collective unconscious；
as espoused by Carl Jung。 What sort of justification might we offer for applying Jung’s
hypothesis to the preparedness hypothesis？
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SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
DSM…IV…TR： What Is It？
DSM…IV…TR is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders； Text Revision Edition。 DSMIV…
TR is a diagnostic manual； published by the American Psychiatric Association and is used by
mental health professionals in an attempt at concordance in evaluation and diagnosis of the
various mental illnesses。 If you have medical insurance that covers mental health care； your
carrier probably predicates its decision to pay for your care on