pentatonic scale is employed。 The violin stands first among musical
instruments in their estimation。 They have also the guitar； the
flageolet； the aeolian flute； a bamboo in which holes are cut； which
produce musical sounds when acted upon by the wind； and both metallic
and wooden gongs。
They have no written system of common arithmetic； and are totally
unacquainted with its higher branches。 Their numerals above one
thousand are borrowed from the Hindus； and their manner of counting is
the same as that of the Ainos of Yezo。
Their theory of medicine is derived from Arabia； and abounds in mystery
and superstition。 They regard man as composed of four elements and four
essences； and assimilate his constitution and passions to the twelve
signs of the zodiac； the seven planets； etc。； exaggerating the
mysterious sympathy between man and external nature。 The successful
practice of the hakim or doctor must be based on the principle of
〃preserving the balance of power〃 among the four elements； which is
chiefly effected by moderation in eating。
They know nothing of astronomy； except of some meagre ideas derived
through the Arabs from the Ptolemaic system； and Mr。 Newbold； after
most painstaking research； failed to discover any regular treatise on
astronomy； though Arabic and Hindu tracts on interpretations of dreams；
horoscopes； spells； propitious and unpropitious moments； auguries；
talismans； love philters； medicinal magic and recipes for the
destruction of people at a distance； are numerous。 They acknowledge the
solar year； but adopt the lunar； and reckon the months in three
different ways； dividing them； however； into weeks of seven days；
marking them by the return of the Mohammedan Sabbath。 They suppose the
world to be an oval body revolving on its axis four times within a
year； with the sun； a circular body of fire； moving round it。 The
majority of the people still believe that eclipses are caused by the
sun or moon being devoured by a serpent； and they lament loudly during
their continuance。 The popular modes of measuring distance are
ingenious； but； to a stranger at least； misleading。 Thus Mr。 Daly； in
attempting to reach the interior States； received these replies to his
inquiries about distance〃As far as a gunshot may be heard from this
particular hill；〃 〃If you wash your head before starting it will not be
dry before you reach the place；〃 etc。 They also measure distances by
the day's walk； and by the number of times it is necessary to chew
betel between two places。 The hours are denoted by terms not literally
accurate。 Cockcrowing is daybreak； 1 P。M。； and midnight； 9 A。M。； Lepas
Baja； is the time when the buffaloes； which cannot work when the sun is
high； are relieved from the plough； Tetabawe is 6 P。M。； the word
signifying the cry of a bird which is silent till after sunset。 The
Malay day begins at sunset。
They are still maritime in their habits； and very competent practical
sailors and boat…builders； but though for centuries they divided with
the Arabs the carrying trade between Eastern and Western Asia； and
though a mongrel Malay is the nautical language of nearly all the
peoples from New Guinea to the Tenasserim coast； the Malays knew little
of the science of navigation。 They timed their voyages by the constant
monsoons； and in sailing from island to island coasted the Asiatic
shores； trusting； when for a short time out of sight of land； not to
the compass； though they were acquainted with it； but to known rocks；
glimpses of headlands； the direction of the wind； and their observation
of the Pleiades。
They have no knowledge of geography； architecture； painting； sculpture；
or even mechanics； they no longer make translations from the Arabic or
create fiction； and the old translations of works on law； ethics； and
science are now scarcely studied。 Education among them is at a very low
ebb； but the State of Kedah is beginning to awake to its advantages。
Where schools exist the instruction consists mainly in teaching the
children to repeat； in a tongue which they do not understand； certain
passages from the Koran and some set prayers。
As to law； Sir Stamford Raffles observed in a formal despatch； 〃Nothing
has tended more decidedly to the deterioration of the Malay character
than the want of a well…defined and generally acknowledged system of
law。〃 There are numerous legal compilations； however； and nearly every
State has a code of its own to a certain extent； there are maritime and
land codes； besides 〃customs〃 bad and good； which override the written
law； while in Perak； Selangor； and Sungei Ujong an ill understood
adaptation of some portions of British law further complicates matters。
〃The glorious uncertainty〃 of law is nowhere more fully exemplified
than on this Peninsula。 It is from the Golden Island； the parent Empire
of Menangkabau； that the Malays profess to derive both their criminal
and civil law； their tribal system； their rules for the division of
land by boundary marks； and the manner of government as adapted for
sovereigns and their ministers。 The existence of the various legal
compilations has led to much controversy and even bloodshed between
zealots for the letter of the Koran on one side； and the advocates of
ancient custom on the other。 Among the reasons which have led to the
migration of Malays from the native states into the Straits
Settlements； not the least powerful is the equality of rights before
English law； and the security given by it to property of every kind。 In
the Malay country itself； occupied by Malays and the Chinese associated
with them； there are four Malays to the square mile； whilst under the
British flag some one hundred and twenty…five Malays to the square mile
have taken refuge and sought protection for their industry under our
law！
Cock…fighting； which has attained to the dignity of a literature of its
own； is the popular Malay sport； but the grand sport is a tiger and
buffalo fight； reserved for rare occasions； however； on account of its
expense。 Cock…fighting is a source of gigantic gambling and desperate
feuds。 The birds； which fight in full feather and with sharpened steel
spurs； are very courageous； and die rather than give in。 Wrestling
among young men and tossing the wicker ball； are favorite amusements。
There are professional dancing girls； but dancing as a social amusement
is naturally regarded with disfavor。 Children have various games
peculiar to themselves； which are abandoned as childish things at a
given age。 Riddles and enigmas occupy a good deal of time among the
higher classes。 Chess also occupies much time； but it is much to be
feared that the vice of gambling stimulated by the Chinese； who have
introduced both cards and dice； is taking the place of more innocent
pastimes。
The Malays； like other Mohammedans； practice polygamy。 They are very
jealous； and their women are veiled and to a certain extent secluded；
but they are affectionate； and among the lower classes there is a good
deal of domesticity。 Their houses are described in the following
letters。 The food of the poorer classes consists mainly of rice and
salt…fish； curries of both； maize； sugar…cane； bananas； and jungle
fruits； cocoa…nut milk being used in the preparation of food as well as
for a beverage。 As luxuries they chew betelnut and smoke tobacco； and
although intoxicants are forbidden； they tap the toddy palm and drink
of its easily fermented juice。 Where metal finds its way into domestic
utensils it is usually in the form of tin water…bottles and ewers。
Every native possesses a sweeping broom； sleeping mats； coarse or fine；
and bamboo or grass baskets。 Most families use an iron pan for cooking；
with a half cocoa…nut shell for a ladle。 A large nut shell filled with
palm…oil； and containing a pith wick； is the ordinary Malay lamp。 Among
the poor； fresh leaves serve as plates and dishes； but the chiefs
possess china。
The Malay weapons consist of the celebrated kris； with its flame…shaped
wavy blade； the sword； regarded； however； more as an ornament； the
parang； which is both knife and weapon； the steel…headed spear； which
cost us so many lives in the Perak war； matchlocks； blunderbusses； and
lelahs； long heavy brass guns used for the defense of the stockades
behind which the Malays usually fight。 They make their own gunpowder；
and use cartridges made of cane。
The Malays； like the Japanese； have a most rigid epistolary etiquette；
and set forms for letter writing。 Letters must consist of six parts；
and are so highly elaborate that the scribes who indite them are almost
looked upon as litterateurs。 There is an etiquette of envelopes and
wafers； the number and color of which vary with the relative positions
of the correspondents； and any error in these details is regarded as an
insult。 Etiquette in general is elaborate and rigid； and ignorant
breaches of it on the part of Europeans have occasionally cost them
their lives。
The systems of government in the Malay States vary in detail； but on
the whole may be regarded as absolute despotisms； modified by certain
rights； of which no rulers in a Mohammedan country can absolutely
deprive the ruled； and by the assertion of the individual rights of
chiefs。 Sultans； rajahs； maharajahs； datus； etc。； under ordinary
circumstances have been and still are in most of the unprotected States
unable to control the chiefs under them； who have independently levied
taxes and blackmail till the harassed cultivators came scarcely to care
to possess property which might at any time be seized。 Forced labor for
a quarter of the laboring year was obligatory on all males； besides
military service when called upon。
Slavery and debt bondage exist in all the native States； except in
Selangor and Sungei Ujong； where it has recently been abolished； as it
is hoped it will be in Perak。 The slaves of the reigning princes were
very easily acquired； for a prince had only to send a messenger bearing
a sword or kris to a house； and the parents were obliged to give up any
one of their children without delay or question。 In debt slavery； which
prevails more or less among all classes； and has done a great deal to
degrade the women of the Penins