wealbk01- 第29部分

universities　were　first　established；　the　term　of　years　which　it

was　necessary　to　study；　in　order　to　obtain　the　degree　of　master

of　arts；　appears　evidently　to　have　been　copied　from　the　terms　of

apprenticeship　in　common　trades；　of　which　the　incorporations　were

much　more　ancient。　As　to　have　wrought　seven　years　under　a　master

properly　qualified　was　necessary　in　order　to　entitle　any　person

to　become　a　master；　and　to　have　himself　apprenticed　in　a　common

trade；　so　to　have　studied　seven　years　under　a　master　properly

qualified　was　necessary　to　entitle　him　to　become　a　master；

teacher；　or　doctor　（words　anciently　synonymous）　in　the　liberal

arts；　and　to　have　scholars　or　apprentices　（words　likewise

originally　synonymous）　to　study　under　him。

　　　　　By　the　5th　of　Elizabeth；　commonly　called　the　Statute　of

Apprenticeship；　it　was　enacted；　that　no　person　should　for　the

future　exercise　any　trade；　craft；　or　mystery　at　that　time

exercised　in　England；　unless　he　had　previously　served　to　it　an

apprenticeship　of　seven　years　at　least；　and　what　before　had　been

the　bye　law　of　many　particular　corporations　became　in　England　the

general　and　public　law　of　all　trades　carried　on　in　market　towns。

For　though　the　words　of　the　statute　are　very　general；　and　seem

plainly　to　include　the　whole　kingdom；　by　interpretation　its

operation　has　been　limited　to　market　towns；　it　having　been　held

that　in　country　villages　a　person　may　exercise　several　different

trades；　though　he　has　not　served　a　seven　years'　apprenticeship　to

each；　they　being　necessary　for　the　conveniency　of　the

inhabitants；　and　the　number　of　people　frequently　not　being

sufficient　to　supply　each　with　a　particular　set　of　hands。

　　　　　By　a　strict　interpretation　of　the　words；　too；　the　operation

of　this　statute　has　been　limited　to　those　trades　which　were

established　in　England　before　the　5th　of　Elizabeth；　and　has　never

been　extended　to　such　as　have　been　introduced　since　that　time。

This　limitation　has　given　occasion　to　several　distinctions　which；

considered　as　rules　of　police；　appear　as　foolish　as　can　well　be

imagined。　It　has　been　adjudged；　for　example；　that　a　coachmaker

can　neither　himself　make　nor　employ　journeymen　to　make　his

coach…wheels；　but　must　buy　them　of　a　master　wheel…wright；　this

latter　trade　having　been　exercised　in　England　before　the　5th　of

Elizabeth。　But　a　wheelwright；　though　he　has　never　served　an

apprenticeship　to　a　coachmaker；　may　either　himself　make　or　employ

journeyman　to　make　coaches；　the　trade　of　a　coachmaker　not　being

within　the　statute；　because　not　exercised　in　England　at　the　time

when　it　was　made。　The　manufactures　of　Manchester；　Birmingham；　and

Wolverhampton；　are　many　of　them；　upon　this　account；　not　within

the　statute；　not　having　been　exercised　in　England　before　the　5th

of　Elizabeth。

　　　　　In　France；　the　duration　of　apprenticeships　is　different　in

different　towns　and　in　different　trades。　In　Paris；　five　years　is

the　term　required　in　a　great　number；　but　before　any　person　can　be

qualified　to　exercise　the　trade　as　a　master；　he　must；　in　many　of

them；　serve　five　years　more　as　a　journeyman。　During　this　latter

term　he　is　called　the　companion　of　his　master；　and　the　term

itself　is　called　his　companionship。

　　　　　In　Scotland　there　is　no　general　law　which　regulates

universally　the　duration　of　apprenticeships。　The　term　is

different　in　different　corporations。　Where　it　is　long；　a　part　of

it　may　generally　be　redeemed　by　paying　a　small　fine。　In　most

towns；　too；　a　very　small　fine　is　sufficient　to　purchase　the

freedom　of　any　corporation。　The　weavers　of　linen　and　hempen

cloth；　the　principal　manufactures　of　the　country；　as　well　as　all

other　artificers　subservient　to　them；　wheel…makers；　reel…makers；

etc。；　may　exercise　their　trades　in　any　town　corporate　without

paying　any　fine。　In　all　towns　corporate　all　persons　are　free　to

sell　butcher's　meat　upon　any　lawful　day　of　the　week。　Three　years

in　Scotland　is　a　common　term　of　apprenticeship；　even　in　some　very

nice　trades；　and　in　general　I　know　of　no　country　in　Europe　in

which　corporation　laws　are　so　little　oppressive。

　　　　　The　property　which　every　man　has　in　his　own　labour；　as　it　is

the　original　foundation　of　all　other　property；　so　it　is　the　most

sacred　and　inviolable。　The　patrimony　of　a　poor　man　lies　in　the

strength　and　dexterity　of　his　hands；　and　to　hinder　him　from

employing　this　strength　and　dexterity　of　his　hands；　and　to　hinder

him　from　employing　this　strength　and　dexterity　in　what　manner　he

thinks　proper　without　injury　to　his　neighbour　is　a　plain

violation　of　this　most　sacred　property。　It　is　a　manifest

encroachment　upon　the　just　liberty　both　of　the　workman　and　of

those　who　might　be　disposed　to　employ　him。　As　it　hinders　the　one

from　working　at　what　he　thinks　proper；　so　it　hinders　the　others

from　employing　whom　they　think　proper。　To　judge　whether　he　is　fit

to　be　employed　may　surely　be　trusted　to　the　discretion　of　the

employers　whose　interest　it　so　much　concerns。　The　affected

anxiety　of　the　law…giver　lest　they　should　employ　an　improper

person　is　evidently　as　impertinent　as　it　is　oppressive。

　　　　　The　institution　of　long　apprenticeships　can　give　no　security

that　insufficient　workmanship　shall　not　frequently　be　exposed　to

public　sale。　When　this　is　done　it　is　generally　the　effect　of

fraud；　and　not　of　inability；　and　the　longest　apprenticeship　can

give　no　security　against　fraud。　Quite　different　regulations　are

necessary　to　prevent　this　abuse。　The　sterling　mark　upon　plate；

and　the　stamps　upon　linen　and　woollen　cloth；　give　the　purchaser

much　greater　security　than　any　statute　of　apprenticeship。　He

generally　looks　at　these；　but　never　thinks　it　worth　while　to

inquire　whether　the　workman　had　served　a　seven　years'

apprenticeship。

　　　　　The　institution　of　long　apprenticeships　has　no　tendency　to

form　a　young　people　to　industry。　A　journeyman　who　works　by　the

piece　is　likely　to　be　industrious；　because　he　derives　a　benefit

from　every　exertion　of　his　industry。　An　apprentice　is　likely　to

be　idle；　and　almost　always　is　so；　because　he　has　no　immediate

interest　to　be　otherwise。　In　the　inferior　employments；　the　sweets

of　labour　consist　altogether　in　the　recompense　of　labour。　They

who　are　soonest　in　a　condition　to　enjoy　the　sweets　of　it　are

likely　soonest　to　conceive　a　relish　for　it；　and　to　acquire　the

early　habit　of　industry。　A　young　man　naturally　conceives　an

aversion　to　labour　when　for　a　long　time　he　receives　no　benefit

from　it。　The　boys　who　are　put　out　apprentices　from　public

charities　are　generally　bound　for　more　than　the　usual　number　of

years；　and　they　generally　turn　out　very　idle　and　worthless。

　　　　　Apprenticeships　were　altogether　unknown　to　the　ancients。　The

reciprocal　duties　of　master　and　apprentice　make　a　considerable

article　in　every　modern　code。　The　Roman　law　is　perfectly　silent

with　regard　to　them。　I　know　no　Greek　or　Latin　word　（I　might

venture；　I　believe；　to　assert　that　there　is　none）　which　expresses

the　idea　we　now　annex　to　the　word　Apprentice；　a　servant　bound　to

work　at　a　particular　trade　for　the　benefit　of　a　master；　during　a

term　of　years；　upon　condition　that　the　master　shall　teach　him

that　trade。

　　　　　Long　apprenticeships　are　altogether　unnecessary。　The　arts；

which　are　much　superior　to　common　trades；　such　as　those　of　making

clocks　and　watches；　contain　no　such　mystery　as　to　require　a　long

course　of　instruction。　The　first　invention　of　such　beautiful

machines；　indeed；　and　even　that　of　some　of　the　instruments

employed　in　making　them；　must；　no　doubt；　have　been　the　work　of

deep　thought　and　long　time；　and　may　justly　be　considered　as　among

the　happiest　efforts　of　human　ingenuity。　But　when　both　have　been

fairly　invented　and　are　well　understood；　to　explain　to　any　young

man；　in　the　completest　manner；　how　to　apply　the　instruments　and

how　to　construct　the　machines；　cannot　well　require　more　than　the

lessons　of　a　few　weeks：　perhaps　those　of　a　few　days　might　be

sufficient。　In　the　common　mechanic　trades；　those　of　a　few　days

might　certainly　be　sufficient。　The　dexterity　of　hand；　indeed；

even　in　common　trades；　cannot　be　acquired　without　much　practice

and　experience。　But　a　young　man　would　practice　with　much　more

diligence　and　attention；　if　from　the　beginning　he　wrought　as　a

journeyman；　being　paid　in　proportion　to　the　little　work　which　he

could　execute；　and　paying　in　his　turn　for　the　materials　which　he

might　sometimes　spoil　through　awkwardness　and　inexperience。　His

education　would　generally　in　this　way　be　more　effectual；　and

always　less　tedious　and　expensive。　The　master；　indeed；　would　be　a

loser。　He　would　lose　all　the　wages　of　the　apprentice；　which　he

now　saves；　for　seven　years　together。　In　the　end；　perhaps；　the

apprentice　himself　would　be　a　loser。　In　a　trade　so　easily　learnt

he　would　have　more　competitors；　and　his　wages；　when　he　came　to　be

a　complete　workman；　would　be　much　less　than　at　present。　The　same

increase　of　competition　would　reduce　the　profits　of　the　masters

as　well　as　the　wages　of　the　workmen。　The　trades；　the　crafts；　the

mysteries；　would　all　be　losers。　But　the　public　would　be　a　gainer；

the　work　of　all　artificers　coming　in　this　way　much　cheaper　to

market。

　　　　　It　is　to　prevent　this　reduction　of　price；　and　consequently

of　wages　and　profit；　by　restraining　that　free　competition　which

would　most　certainly　occasion　it；　that　all　corporations；　and　the

greater　part　of　corporation　laws；　have　been　established。　In　order

to　erect　a　corporation；　no　other　authority　in　ancient　times　was

requisite　in　many　parts　of　Europe；　but　that　of　the　town　corporate

in　which　it　was　established。　In　England；　indeed；　a　charter　from

the　king　was　likewise　necessary。　But　this　prerogative　of　the

crown　seems　to　have　been　reserved　rather　for　extorting　money　from

the　subject　than　for　the　defence　of　the　common　liberty　against

such　oppressive　monopolies。　Upon　paying　a　fine　to　the　king；　the

charter　seems　generally　to　have　been　readily　granted；　and　when

any　particular　class　of　artifice