wealbk01- 第30部分

charter　seems　generally　to　have　been　readily　granted；　and　when

any　particular　class　of　artificers　or　traders　thought　proper　to

act　as　a　corporation　without　a　charter；　such　adulterine　guilds；

as　they　were　called；　were　not　always　disfranchised　upon　that

account；　but　obliged　to　fine　annually　to　the　king　for　permission

to　exercise　their　usurped　privileges。　The　immediate　inspection　of

all　corporations；　and　of　the　bye…laws　which　they　might　think

proper　to　enact　for　their　own　government；　belonged　to　the　town

corporate　in　which　they　were　established；　and　whatever　discipline

was　exercised　over　them　proceeded　commonly；　not　from　the　king；

but　from　the　greater　incorporation　of　which　those　subordinate

ones　were　only　parts　or　members。

　　　　　The　government　of　towns　corporate　was　altogether　in　the

hands　of　traders　and　artificers；　and　it　was　the　manifest　interest

of　every　particular　class　of　them　to　prevent　the　market　from

being　overstocked；　as　they　commonly　express　it；　with　their　own

particular　species　of　industry；　which　is　in　reality　to　keep　it

always　understocked。　Each　class　was　eager　to　establish

regulations　proper　for　this　purpose；　and；　provided　it　was　allowed

to　do　so；　was　willing　to　consent　that　every　other　class　should　do

the　same。　In　consequence　of　such　regulations；　indeed；　each　class

was　obliged　to　buy　the　goods　they　had　occasion　for　from　every

other　within　the　town；　somewhat　dearer　than　they　otherwise　might

have　done。　But　in　recompense；　they　were　enabled　to　sell　their　own

just　as　much　dearer；　so　that　so　far　it　was　as　broad　as　long；　as

they　say；　and　in　the　dealings　of　the　different　classes　within　the

town　with　one　another；　none　of　them　were　losers　by　these

regulations。　But　in　their　dealings　with　the　country　they　were　all

great　gainers；　and　in　these　latter　dealings　consists　the　whole

trade　which　supports　and　enriches　every　town。

　　　　　Every　town　draws　its　whole　subsistence；　and　all　the

materials　of　its　industry；　from　the　country。　It　pays　for　these

chiefly　in　two　ways：　first；　by　sending　back　to　the　country　a　part

of　those　materials　wrought　up　and　manufactured；　in　which　case

their　price　is　augmented　by　the　wages　of　the　workmen；　and　the

profits　of　their　masters　or　immediate　employers；　secondly；　by

sending　to　it　a　part　both　of　the　rude　and　manufactured　produce；

either　of　other　countries；　or　of　distant　parts　of　the　same

country；　imported　into　the　town；　in　which　case；　too；　the　original

price　of　those　goods　is　augmented　by　the　wages　of　the　carriers　or

sailors；　and　by　the　profits　of　the　merchants　who　employ　them。　In

what　is　gained　upon　the　first　of　those　two　branches　of　commerce

consists　the　advantage　which　the　town　makes　by　its　manufactures；

in　what　is　gained　upon　the　second；　the　advantage　of　its　inland

and　foreign　trade。　The　wages　of　the　workmen；　and　the　profits　of

their　different　employers；　make　up　the　whole　of　what　is　gained

upon　both。　Whatever　regulations；　therefore；　tend　to　increase

those　wages　and　profits　beyond　what　they　otherwise　would　be；　tend

to　enable　the　town　to　purchase；　with　a　smaller　quantity　of　its

labour；　the　produce　of　a　greater　quantity　of　the　labour　of　the

country。　They　give　the　traders　and　artificers　in　the　town　an

advantage　over　the　landlords；　farmers；　and　labourers　in　the

country；　and　break　down　that　natural　equality　which　would

otherwise　take　place　in　the　commerce　which　is　carried　on　between

them。　The　whole　annual　produce　of　the　labour　of　the　society　is

annually　divided　between　those　two　different　sets　of　people。　By

means　of　those　regulations　a　greater　share　of　it　is　given　to　the

inhabitants　of　the　town　than　would　otherwise　fall　to　them；　and　a

less　to　those　of　the　country。

　　　　　The　price　which　the　town　really　pays　for　the　provisions　and

materials　annually　imported　into　it　is　the　quantity　of

manufactures　and　other　goods　annually　exported　from　it。　The

dearer　the　latter　are　sold；　the　cheaper　the　former　are　bought。

The　industry　of　the　town　becomes　more；　and　that　of　the　country

less　advantageous。

　　　　　That　the　industry　which　is　carried　on　in　towns　is；

everywhere　in　Europe；　more　advantageous　than　that　which　is

carried　on　in　the　country；　without　entering　into　any　very　nice

computations；　we　may　satisfy　ourselves　by　one　very　simple　and

obvious　observation。　In　every　country　of　Europe　we　find；　at

least；　a　hundred　people　who　have　acquired　great　fortunes　from

small　beginnings　by　trade　and　manufactures；　the　industry　which

properly　belongs　to　towns；　for　one　who　has　done　so　by　that　which

properly　belongs　to　the　country；　the　raising　of　rude　produce　by

the　improvement　and　cultivation　of　land。　Industry；　therefore；

must　be　better　rewarded；　the　wages　of　labour　and　the　profits　of

stock　must　evidently　be　greater　in　the　one　situation　than　in　the

other。　But　stock　and　labour　naturally　seek　the　most　advantageous

employment。　They　naturally；　therefore；　resort　as　much　as　they　can

to　the　town；　and　desert　the　country。

　　　　　The　inhabitants　of　a　town；　being　collected　into　one　place；

can　easily　combine　together。　The　most　insignificant　trades

carried　on　in　towns　have　accordingly；　in　some　place　or　other；

been　incorporated；　and　even　where　they　have　never　been

incorporated；　yet　the　corporation　spirit；　the　jealousy　of

strangers；　the　aversion　to　take　apprentices；　or　to　communicate

the　secret　of　their　trade；　generally　prevail　in　them；　and　often

teach　them；　by　voluntary　associations　and　agreements；　to　prevent

that　free　competition　which　they　cannot　prohibit　by　bye…laws。　The

trades　which　employ　but　a　small　number　of　hands　run　most　easily

into　such　combinations。　Half　a　dozen　wool…combers；　perhaps；　are

necessary　to　keep　a　thousand　spinners　and　weavers　at　work。　By

combining　not　to　take　apprentices　they　can　not　only　engross　the

employment；　but　reduce　the　whole　manufacture　into　a　sort　of

slavery　to　themselves；　and　raise　the　price　of　their　labour　much

above　what　is　due　to　the　nature　of　their　work。

　　　　　The　inhabitants　of　the　country；　dispersed　in　distant　places；

cannot　easily　combine　together。　They　have　not　only　never　been

incorporated；　but　the　corporation　spirit　never　has　prevailed

among　them。　No　apprenticeship　has　ever　been　thought　necessary　to

qualify　for　husbandry；　the　great　trade　of　the　country。　After　what

are　called　the　fine　arts；　and　the　liberal　professions；　however；

there　is　perhaps　no　trade　which　requires　so　great　a　variety　of

knowledge　and　experience。　The　innumerable　volumes　which　have　been

written　upon　it　in　all　languages　may　satisfy　us　that；　among　the

wisest　and　most　learned　nations；　it　has　never　been　regarded　as　a

matter　very　easily　understood。　And　from　all　those　volumes　we

shall　in　vain　attempt　to　collect　that　knowledge　of　its　various

and　complicated　operations；　which　is　commonly　possessed　even　by

the　common　farmer；　how　contemptuously　soever　the　very

contemptible　authors　of　some　of　them　may　sometimes　affect　to

speak　of　him。　There　is　scarce　any　common　mechanic　trade；　on　the

contrary；　of　which　all　the　operations　may　not　be　as　completely

and　distinctly　explained　in　a　pamphlet　of　a　very　few　pages；　as　it

is　possible　for　words　illustrated　by　figures　to　explain　them。　In

the　history　of　the　arts；　now　publishing　by　the　French　Academy　of

Sciences；　several　of　them　are　actually　explained　in　this　manner。

The　direction　of　operations；　besides；　which　must　be　varied　with

every　change　of　the　weather；　as　well　as　with　many　other

accidents；　requires　much　more　judgment　and　discretion　than　that

of　those　which　are　always　the　same　or　very　nearly　the　same。

　　　　　Not　only　the　art　of　the　farmer；　the　general　direction　of　the

operations　of　husbandry；　but　many　inferior　branches　of　country

labour　require　much　more　skin　and　experience　than　the　greater

part　of　mechanic　trades。　The　man　who　works　upon　brass　and　iron；

works　with　instruments　and　upon　materials　of　which　the　temper　is

always　the　same；　or　very　nearly　the　same。　But　the　man　who　ploughs

the　ground　with　a　team　of　horses　or　oxen；　works　with　instruments

of　which　the　health；　strength；　and　temper；　are　very　different

upon　different　occasions。　The　condition　of　the　materials　which　he

works　upon；　too；　is　as　variable　as　that　of　the　instruments　which

he　works　with；　and　both　require　to　be　managed　with　much　judgment

and　discretion。　The　common　ploughman；　though　generally　regarded

as　the　pattern　of　stupidity　and　ignorance；　is　seldom　defective　in

this　judgment　and　discretion。　He　is　less　accustomed；　indeed；　to

social　intercourse　than　the　mechanic　who　lives　in　a　town。　His

voice　and　language　are　more　uncouth　and　more　difficult　to　be

understood　by　those　who　are　not　used　to　them。　His　understanding；

however；　being　accustomed　to　consider　a　greater　variety　of

objects；　is　generally　much　superior　to　that　of　the　other；　whose

whole　attention　from　morning　till　night　is　commonly　occupied　in

performing　one　or　two　very　simple　operations。　How　much　the　lower

ranks　of　people　in　the　country　are　really　superior　to　those　of

the　town　is　well　known　to　every　man　whom　either　business　or

curiosity　has　led　to　converse　much　with　both。　In　China　and

Indostan　accordingly　both　the　rank　and　the　wages　of　country

labourers　are　said　to　be　superior　to　those　of　the　greater　part　of

artificers　and　manufacturers。　They　would　probably　be　so

everywhere；　if　corporation　laws　and　the　corporation　spirit　did

not　prevent　it。

　　　　　The　superiority　which　the　industry　of　the　towns　has

everywhere　in　Europe　over　that　of　the　country　is　not　altogether

owing　to　corporations　and　corporation　laws。　It　is　supported　by

many　other　regulations。　The　high　duties　upon　foreign　manufactures

and　upon　all　goods　imported　by　alien　merchants；　all　tend　to　the

same　purpose。　Corporation　laws　enable　the　inhabitants　of　towns　to

raise　their　prices；　without　fearing　to　be　undersold　by　the　free

competition　of　their　own　countrymen。　Those　other　regulations

secure　them　equally　against　that　of　foreigners。　The　enhancement

of　price　occasioned　by　both　is　everywhere　finally　paid　by　the