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secure　them　equally　against　that　of　foreigners。　The　enhancement

of　price　occasioned　by　both　is　everywhere　finally　paid　by　the

landlords；　farmers；　and　labourers　of　the　country；　who　have　seldom

opposed　the　establishment　of　such　monopolies。　They　have　commonly

neither　inclination　nor　fitness　to　enter　into　combinations；　and

the　clamour　and　sophistry　of　merchants　and　manufacturers　easily

persuade　them　that　the　private　interest　of　a　part；　and　of　a

subordinate　part　of　the　society；　is　the　general　interest　of　the

whole。

　　　　　In　Great　Britain　the　superiority　of　the　industry　of　the

towns　over　that　of　the　country　seems　to　have　been　greater

formerly　than　in　the　present　times。　The　wages　of　country　labour

approach　nearer　to　those　of　manufacturing　labour；　and　the　profits

of　stock　employed　in　agriculture　to　those　of　trading　and

manufacturing　stock；　than　they　are　said　to　have　done　in　the　last

century；　or　in　the　beginning　of　the　present。　This　change　may　be

regarded　as　the　necessary；　though　very　late　consequence　of　the

extraordinary　encouragement　given　to　the　industry　of　the　towns。

The　stock　accumulated　in　them　comes　in　time　to　be　so　great　that

it　can　no　longer　be　employed　with　the　ancient　profit　in　that

species　of　industry　which　is　peculiar　to　them。　That　industry　has

its　limits　like　every　other；　and　the　increase　of　stock；　by

increasing　the　competition；　necessarily　reduces　the　profit。　The

lowering　of　profit　in　the　town　forces　out　stock　to　the　country；

where；　by　creating　a　new　demand　for　country　labour；　it

necessarily　raises　its　wages。　It　then　spreads　itself；　if　I　may

say　so；　over　the　face　of　the　land；　and　by　being　employed　in

agriculture　is　in　part　restored　to　the　country；　at　the　expense　of

which；　in　a　great　measure；　it　had　originally　been　accumulated　in

the　town。　That　everywhere　in　Europe　the　greatest　improvements　of

the　country　have　been　owing　to　such　overflowings　of　the　stock

originally　accumulated　in　the　towns；　I　shall　endeavour　to　show

hereafter；　and　at　the　same　time　to　demonstrate　that；　though　some

countries　have　by　this　course　attained　to　a　considerable　degree

of　opulence；　it　is　in　itself　necessarily　slow；　uncertain；　liable

to　be　disturbed　and　interrupted　by　innumerable　accidents；　and　in

every　respect　contrary　to　the　order　of　nature　and　of　reason。　The

interests；　prejudices；　laws　and　customs；　which　have　given

occasion　to　it；　I　shall　endeavour　to　explain　as　fully　and

distinctly　as　I　can　in　the　third　and　fourth　books　of　this

Inquiry。

　　　　　People　of　the　same　trade　seldom　meet　together；　even　for

merriment　and　diversion；　but　the　conversation　ends　in　a

conspiracy　against　the　public；　or　in　some　contrivance　to　raise

prices。　It　is　impossible　indeed　to　prevent　such　meetings；　by　any

law　which　either　could　be　executed；　or　would　be　consistent　with

liberty　and　justice。　But　though　the　law　cannot　hinder　people　of

the　same　trade　from　sometimes　assembling　together；　it　ought　to　do

nothing　to　facilitate　such　assemblies；　much　less　to　render　them

necessary。

　　　　　A　regulation　which　obliges　all　those　of　the　same　trade　in　a

particular　town　to　enter　their　names　and　places　of　abode　in　a

public　register；　facilitates　such　assemblies。　It　connects

individuals　who　might　never　otherwise　be　known　to　one　another；

and　gives　every　man　of　the　trade　a　direction　where　to　find　every

other　man　of　it。

　　　　　A　regulation　which　enables　those　of　the　same　trade　to　tax

themselves　in　order　to　provide　for　their　poor；　their　sick；　their

widows　and　orphans；　by　giving　them　a　common　interest　to　manage；

renders　such　assemblies　necessary。

　　　　　An　incorporation　not　only　renders　them　necessary；　but　makes

the　act　of　the　majority　binding　upon　the　whole。　In　a　free　trade

an　effectual　combination　cannot　be　established　but　by　the

unanimous　consent　of　every　single　trader；　and　it　cannot　last

longer　than　every　single　trader　continues　of　the　same　mind。　The

majority　of　a　corporation　can　enact　a　bye…law　with　proper

penalties；　which　will　limit　the　competition　more　effectually　and

more　durably　than　any　voluntary　combination　whatever。

　　　　　The　pretence　that　corporations　are　necessary　for　the　better

government　of　the　trade　is　without　any　foundation。　The　real　and

effectual　discipline　which　is　exercised　over　a　workman　is　not

that　of　his　corporation；　but　that　of　his　customers。　It　is　the

fear　of　losing　their　employment　which　restrains　his　frauds　and

corrects　his　negligence。　An　exclusive　corporation　necessarily

weakens　the　force　of　this　discipline。　A　particular　set　of　workmen

must　then　be　employed；　let　them　behave　well　or　ill。　It　is　upon

this　account　that　in　many　large　incorporated　towns　no　tolerable

workmen　are　to　be　found；　even　in　some　of　the　most　necessary

trades。　If　you　would　have　your　work　tolerably　executed；　it　must

be　done　in　the　suburbs；　where　the　workmen；　having　no　exclusive

privilege；　have　nothing　but　their　character　to　depend　upon；　and

you　must　then　smuggle　it　into　the　town　as　well　as　you　can。

　　　　　It　is　in　this　manner　that　the　policy　of　Europe；　by

restraining　the　competition　in　some　employments　to　a　smaller

number　than　would　otherwise　be　disposed　to　enter　into　them；

occasions　a　very　important　inequality　in　the　whole　of　the

advantages　and　disadvantages　of　the　different　employments　of

labour　and　stock。

　　　　　Secondly；　the　policy　of　Europe；　by　increasing　the

competition　in　some　employments　beyond　what　it　naturally　would

be；　occasions　another　inequality　of　an　opposite　kind　in　the　whole

of　the　advantages　and　disadvantages　of　the　different　employments

of　labour　and　stock。

　　　　　It　has　been　considered　as　of　so　much　importance　that　a

proper　number　of　young　people　should　be　educated　for　certain

professions；　that　sometimes　the　public　and　sometimes　the　piety　of

private　founders　have　established　many　pensions；　scholarships；

exhibitions；　bursaries；　etc。；　for　this　purpose；　which　draw　many

more　people　into　those　trades　than　could　otherwise　pretend　to

follow　them。　In　all　Christian　countries；　I　believe；　the　education

of　the　greater　part　of　churchmen　is　paid　for　in　this　manner。　Very

few　of　them　are　educated　altogether　at　their　own　expense。　The

long；　tedious；　and　expensive　education；　therefore；　of　those　who

are；　will　not　always　procure　them　a　suitable　reward；　the　church

being　crowded　with　people　who；　in　order　to　get　employment；　are

willing　to　accept　of　a　much　smaller　recompense　than　what　such　an

education　would　otherwise　have　entitled　them　to；　and　in　this

manner　the　competition　of　the　poor　takes　away　the　reward　of　the

rich。　It　would　be　indecent；　no　doubt；　to　compare　either　a　curate

or　a　chaplain　with　a　journeyman　in　any　common　trade。　The　pay　of　a

curate　or　chaplain；　however；　may　very　properly　be　considered　as

of　the　same　nature　with　the　wages　of　a　journeyman。　They　are；　all

three；　paid　for　their　work　according　to　the　contract　which　they

may　happen　to　make　with　their　respective　superiors。　Till　after

the　middle　of　the　fourteenth　century；　five　merks；　containing

about　as　much　silver　as　ten　pounds　of　our　present　money；　was　in

England　the　usual　pay　of　a　curate　or　a　stipendiary　parish　priest；

as　we　find　it　regulated　by　the　decrees　of　several　different

national　councils。　At　the　same　period　fourpence　a　day；　containing

the　same　quantity　of　silver　as　a　shilling　of　our　present　money；

was　declared　to　be　the　pay　of　a　master　mason；　and　threepence　a

day；　equal　to　ninepence　of　our　present　money；　that　of　a

journeyman　mason。　The　wages　of　both　these　labourers；　therefore；

supposing　them　to　have　been　constantly　employed；　were　much

superior　to　those　of　the　curate。　The　wages　of　the　master　mason；

supposing　him　to　have　been　without　employment　one　third　of　the

year；　would　have　fully　equalled　them。　By　the　12th　of　Queen　Anne；

c。　12；　it　is　declared；　〃That　whereas　for　want　of　sufficient

maintenance　and　encouragement　to　curates；　the　cures　have　in

several　places　been　meanly　supplied；　the　bishop　is；　therefore；

empowered　to　appoint　by　writing　under　his　band　and　seal　a

sufficient　certain　stipend　or　allowance；　not　exceeding　fifty　and

not　less　than　twenty　pounds　a　year。〃　Forty　pounds　a　year　is

reckoned　at　present　very　good　pay　for　a　curate；　and

notwithstanding　this　Act　of　Parliament　there　are　many　curacies

under　twenty　pounds　a　year。　There　are　journeymen　shoemakers　in

London　who　earn　forty　pounds　a　year；　and　there　is　scarce　an

industrious　workman　of　any　kind　in　that　metropolis　who　does　not

earn　more　than　twenty。　This　last　sum　indeed　does　not　exceed　what

is　frequently　earned　by　common　labourers　in　many　country

parishes。　Whenever　the　law　has　attempted　to　regulate　the　wages　of

workmen；　it　has　always　been　rather　to　lower　them　than　to　raise

them。　But　the　law　has　upon　many　occasions　attempted　to　raise　the

wages　of　curates；　and　for　the　dignity　of　the　church；　to　oblige

the　rectors　of　parishes　to　give　them　more　than　the　wretched

maintenance　which　they　themselves　might　be　willing　to　accept　of。

And　in　both　cases　the　law　seems　to　have　been　equally　ineffectual；

and　has　never　either　been　able　to　raise　the　wages　of　curates；　or

to　sink　those　of　labourers　to　the　degree　that　was　intended；

because　it　has　never　been　able　to　hinder　either　the　one　from

being　willing　to　accept　of　less　than　the　legal　allowance；　on

account　of　the　indigence　of　their　situation　and　the　multitude　of

their　competitors；　or　the　other　from　receiving　more；　on　account

of　the　contrary　competition　of　those　who　expected　to　derive

either　profit　or　pleasure　from　employing　them。

　　　　　The　great　benefices　and　other　ecclesiastical　dignities

support　the　honour　of　the　church；　notwithstanding　the　mean

circumstance　of　some　of　its　inferior　members。　The　respect　paid　to

the　profession；　too；　makes　some　compensation　even　to　them　for　the

meanness　of　their　pecuniary　recompense。　In　England；　and　in　all

Roman　Catholic　countries；　the　lottery　of　the　church　is　in　reality

much　more　advantageous　than　is　necessary。　The　example　of　the

churches　of　Scotland；　of　Geneva；　and　of　several　oth