ard； deliberating with closed doors； nobody knowing； or； except in some extreme case； being ever likely to know； whether an individual member voted for the act or against it。 Responsibility in this case is a mere name。 〃Boards；〃 it is happily said by Bentham； 〃are screens。〃 What 〃the Board〃 does is the act of nobody； and nobody can be made to answer for it。 The Board suffers； even in reputation； only in its collective character； and no individual member feels this further than his disposition leads him to identify his own estimation with that of the body… a feeling often very strong when the body is a permanent one； and he is wedded to it for better for worse； but the fluctuations of a modern official career give no time for the formation of such an esprit de corps； which if it exists at all； exists only in the obscure ranks of the permanent subordinates。 Boards； therefore； are not a fit instrument for executive business； and are only admissible in it when； for other reasons； to give full discretionary power to a single minister would be worse。 On the other hand； it is also a maxim of experience that in the multitude of counsellors there is wisdom； and that a man seldom judges right； even in his own concerns； still less in those of the public； when he makes habitual use of no knowledge but his own； or that of some single adviser。 There is no necessary incompatibility between this principle and the other。 It is easy to give the effective power； and the full responsibility； to one； providing him when necessary with advisers； each of whom is responsible only for the opinion he gives。 In general； the head of a department of the executive government is a mere politician。 He may be a good politician； and a man of merit； and unless this is usually the case； the government is bad。 But his general capacity； and the knowledge he ought to possess of the general interests of the country； will not； unless by occasional accident； be accompanied by adequate； and what may be called professional； knowledge of the department over which he is called to preside。 Professional advisers must therefore be provided for him。 Wherever mere experience and attainments are sufficient wherever the qualities required in a professional adviser may possibly be united in a single well…selected individual （as in the case； for example； of a law officer）； one such person for general purposes； and a staff of clerks to supply knowledge of details； meet the demands of the case。 But； more frequently； it is not sufficient that the minister should consult some one competent person； and； when himself not conversant with the subject； act implicitly on that person's advice。 It is often necessary that he should； not only occasionally but habitually； listen to a variety of opinions； and inform his judgment by the discussions among a body of advisers。 This； for example； is emphatically necessary in military and naval affairs。 The military and naval ministers； therefore； and probably several others； should be provided with a Council； composed； at least in those two departments； of able and experienced professional men。 As a means of obtaining the best men for the purpose under every change of administration； they ought to be permanent： by which I mean； that they ought not； like the Lords of the Admiralty； to be expected to resign with the ministry by whom they were appointed： but it is a good rule that all who hold high appointments to which they have risen by selection； and not by the ordinary course of promotion； should retain their office only for a fixed term； unless reappointed； as is now the rule with Staff appointments in the British army。 This rule renders appointments somewhat less likely to be jobbed； not being a provision for life； and the same time affords a means； without affront to any one； of getting rid of those who are least worth keeping； and bringing in highly qualified persons of younger standing； for whom there might never be room if death vacancies； or voluntary resignations； were waited for。 The Councils should be consultative merely； in this sense； that the ultimate decision should rest undividedly with the minister himself： but neither ought they to be looked upon； or to look upon themselves； as ciphers； or as capable of being reduced to such at his pleasure。 The advisers attached to a powerful and perhaps self…willed man ought to be placed under conditions which make it impossible for them； without discredit； not to express an opinion； and impossible for him not to listen to and consider their recommendations； whether he adopts them or not。 The relation which ought to exist between a chief and this description of advisers is very accurately hit by the constitution of the Council of the Governor…General and those of the different Presidencies in India。 These Councils are composed of persons who have professional knowledge of Indian affairs； which the Governor…General and Governors usually lack； and which it would not be desirable to require of them。 As a rule； every member of Council is expected to give an opinion； which is of course very often a simple acquiescence： but if there is a difference of sentiment； it is at the option of every member； and is the invariable practice； to record the reasons of his opinion： the Governor…General； or Governor； doing the same。 In ordinary cases the decision is according to the sense of the majority； the Council； therefore； has a substantial part in the government： but if the Governor…General； or Governor； thinks fit； he may set aside even their unanimous opinion； recording his reasons。 The result is； that the chief is individually and effectively responsible for every act of the Government。 The members of Council have only the responsibility of advisers； but it is always known； from documents capable of being produced； and which if called for by Parliament or public opinion always are produced； what each has advised； and what reasons he gave for his advice： while； from their dignified position； and ostensible participation in all acts of government； they have nearly as strong motives to apply themselves to the public business； and to form and express a well…considered opinion on every part of it； as if the whole responsibility rested with themselves。 This mode of conducting the highest class of administrative business is one of the most successful instances of the adaptation of means to ends which political history； not hitherto very prolific in works of skill and contrivance； has yet to show。 It is one of the acquisitions with which the art of politics has been enriched by the experience of the East India Company's rule； and； like most of the other wise contrivances by which India has been preserved to this country； and an amount of good government produced which is truly wonderful considering the circumstances and the materials； it is probably destined to perish in the general holocaust which the traditions of Indian government seem fated to undergo； since they have been placed at the mercy of public ignorance； and the presumptuous vanity of political men。 Already an outcry is raised for abolishing the Councils； as a superfluous and expensive clog on the wheels of government： while the clamour has long been urgent； and is daily obtaining more countenance in the highest quarters； for the abrogation of the professional civil service which breeds the men that compose the Councils； and the existence of which is the sole guarantee for their being of any value。
A most important principle of good government in a popular constitution is that no executive functionaries should be appointed by popular election： neither by the votes of the people themselves； nor by those of their representatives。 The entire business of government is skilled employment； the qualifications for the discharge of it are of that special and professional kind which cannot be properly judged of except by persons who have themselves some share of those qualifications； or some practical experience of them。 The business of finding the fittest persons to fill public employments… not merely selecting the best who offer； but looking out for the absolutely best； and taking note of all fit persons who are met with； that they may be found when wanted… is very laborious； and requires a delicate as well as highly conscientious discernment； and as there is no public duty which is in general so badly performed； so there is none for which it is of greater importance to enforce the utmost practicable amount of personal responsibility； by imposing it as a special obligation on high functionaries in the several departments。 All subordinate public officers who are not appointed by some mode of public competition should be selected on the direct responsibility of the minister under whom they serve。 The ministers； all but the chief； will naturally be selected by the chief； and the chief himself； though really designated by Parliament； should be； in a regal government； officially appointed by the Crown。 The functionary who appoints should be the sole person empowered to remove any subordinate officer who is liable to removal； which the far greater number ought not to be； except for personal misconduct； since it would be vain to expect that the body of persons by whom the whole detail of the public business is transacted； and whose qualifications are generally of much more importance to the public than those of the minister himself； will devote themselves to their profession； and acquire the knowledge and skill on which the minister must often place entire dependence； if they are liable at any moment to be turned adrift for no fault； that the minister may gratify himself； or promote his political interest； by appointing somebody else。 To the principle which condemns the appointment of executive officers by popular suffrage； ought the chief of the executive； in a republican government； to be an exception？ Is it a good rule； which； in the American Constitution； provides for the election of the President once in every four years by the entire people？ The question is not free from difficulty。 There is unquestionably some advantage； in a country like America； where no apprehension needs be entertained of a coup d'etat； in making the chief minister constitutionally independent