be more fruitless than to reason or dispute together； it
were impossible； if men affix the same ideas to their terms；
that they could so long form different opinions of the same
subject； especially when they communicate their views； and
each party turn themselves on all sides； in search of
arguments which may give them the victory over their
antagonists。 It is true； if men attempt the discussion of
questions which lie entirely beyond the reach of human
capacity； such as those concerning the origin of worlds； or
the economy of the intellectual system or region of spirits；
they may long beat the air in their fruitless contests； and
never arrive at any determinate conclusion。 But if the
question regard any subject of common life and experience；
nothing； one would think； could preserve the dispute so long
undecided but some ambiguous expressions； which keep the
antagonists still at a distance； and hinder them from
grappling with each other。
This has been the case in the long disputed question
concerning liberty and necessity； and to so remarkable a
degree that； if I be not much mistaken； we shall find； that
all mankind； both learned and ignorant； have always been of
the same opinion with regard to this subject； and that a few
intelligible definitions would immediately have put an end
to the whole controversy。 I own that this dispute has been
so much canvassed on all hands； and has led philosophers
into such a labyrinth of obscure sophistry； that it is no
wonder； if a sensible reader indulge his ease so far as to
turn a deaf ear to the proposal of such a question； from
which he can expect neither instruction or entertainment。
But the state of the argument here proposed may； perhaps；
serve to renew his attention； as it has more novelty；
promises at least some decision of the controversy； and will
not much disturb his ease by any intricate or obscure
reasoning。
I hope； therefore； to make it appear that all men have
ever agreed in the doctrine both of necessity and of
liberty； according to any reasonable sense； which can be put
on these terms； and that the whole controversy； has hitherto
turned merely upon words。 We shall begin with examining the
doctrine of necessity。
It is universally allowed that matter； in all its
operations； is actuated by a necessary force； and that every
natural effect is so precisely determined by the energy of
its cause that no other effect； in such particular
circumstances； could possibly have resulted from it。 The
degree and direction of every motion is； by the laws of
nature； prescribed with such exactness that a living
creature may as soon arise from the shock of two bodies as
motion in any other degree or direction than what is
actually produced by it。 Would we； therefore； form a just
and precise idea of ； we must consider whence
that idea arises when we apply it to the operation of
bodies。
It seems evident that； if all the scenes of nature were
continually shifted in such a manner that no two events bore
any resemblance to each other； but every object was entirely
new； without any similitude to whatever had been seen
before； we should never； in that case； have attained the
least idea of necessity； or of a connexion among these
objects。 We might say； upon such a supposition； that one
object or event has followed another； not that one was
produced by the other。 The relation of cause and effect must
be utterly unknown to mankind。 Inference and reasoning
concerning the operations of nature would； from that moment；
be at an end； and the memory and senses remain the only
canals； by which the knowledge of any real existence could
possibly have access to the mind。 Our idea； therefore； of
necessity and causation arises entirely from the uniformity
observable in the operations of nature； where similar
objects are constantly conjoined together； and the mind is
determined by custom to infer the one from the appearance of
the other。 These two circumstances form the whole of that
necessity； which we ascribe to matter。 Beyond the constant
of similar objects； and the consequent
from one to the other； we have no notion of any
necessity or connexion。
If it appear； therefore； that all mankind have ever
allowed； without any doubt or hesitation； that these two
circumstances take place in the voluntary actions of men；
and in the operations of mind； it must follow； that all
mankind have ever agreed in the doctrine of necessity； and
that they have hitherto disputed； merely for not
understanding each other。
As to the first circumstance； the constant and regular
conjunction of similar events； we may possibly satisfy
ourselves by the following considerations： It is universally
acknowledged that there is a great uniformity among the
actions of men； in all nations and ages； and that human
nature remains still the same； in its principles and
operations。 The same motives always produce the same
actions： The same events follow from the same causes。
Ambition； avarice； self…love； vanity； friendship；
generosity； public spirit： These passions； mixed in various
degrees； and distributed through society； have been； from
the beginning of the world； and still are； the source of all
the actions and enterprises； which have ever been observed
among mankind。 Would you know the sentiments； inclinations；
and course of life of the G/REEKS and R/OMANS？ Study well
the temper and actions of the F/RENCH and E/NGLISH： You
cannot be much mistaken in transferring to the former
of the observations which you have made with regard to the
latter。 Mankind are so much the same； in all times and
places； that history informs us of nothing new or strange in
this particular。 Its chief use is only to discover the
constant and universal principles of human nature； by
showing men in all varieties of circumstances and
situations； and furnishing us with materials from which we
may form our observations and become acquainted with the
regular springs of human action and behaviour。 These records
of wars； intrigues； factions； and revolutions； are so many
collections of experiments； by which the politician or moral
philosopher fixes the principles of his science； in the same
manner as the physician or natural philosopher becomes
acquainted with the nature of plants； minerals； and other
external objects； by the experiments which he forms
concerning them。 Nor are the earth； water； and other
elements； examined by A/RISTOTLE； and H/IPPOCRATES； more
like to those which at present lie under our observation
than the men described by P/OLYBIUS and T/ACITUS are to
those who now govern the world。
Should a traveller； returning from a far country； bring
us an account of men； wholly different from any with whom we
were ever acquainted； men； who were entirely divested of
avarice； ambition； or revenge； who knew no pleasure but
friendship； generosity； and public spirit； we should
immediately； from these circumstances； detect the falsehood；
and prove him a liar； with the same certainty as if he had
stuffed his narration with stories of centaurs and dragons；
miracles and prodigies。 And if we would explode any forgery
in history； we cannot make use of a more convincing
argument； than to prove； that the actions ascribed to any
person are directly contrary to the course of nature； and
that no human motives； in such circumstances； could ever
induce him to such a conduct。 The veracity of Q/UINTUS
C/URTIUS is as much to be suspected； when he describes the
supernatural courage of A/LEXANDER； by which he was hurried
on singly to attack multitudes； as when he describes his
supernatural force and activity； by which he was able to
resist them。 So readily and universally do we acknowledge a
uniformity in human motives and actions as well as in the
operations of body。
Hence likewise the benefit of that experience； acquired
by long life and a variety of business and company； in order
to instruct us in the principles of human nature； and
regulate our future conduct； as well as speculation。 By
means of this guide； we mount up to the knowledge of men's
inclinations and motives； from their actions； expressions；
and even gestures； and again descend to the interpretation
of their actions from our knowledge of their motives and
inclinations。 The general observations treasured up by a
course of experience； give us the clue of human nature； and
teach us to unravel all its intricacies。 Pretexts and
appearances no longer deceive us。 Public declarations pass
for the specious colouring of a cause。 And though virtue and
honour be allowed their proper weight and authority； that
perfect disinterestedness； so often pretended to； is never
expected in multitudes and parties； seldom in their leaders；
and scarcely even in individuals of any rank or station。 But
were there no uniformity in human actions； and were every
experiment which we could form of this kind irregular and
anomalous； it were impossible to collect any general
observations concerning mankind； and no experience； however
accurately digested by reflection； would ever serve to any
purpose。 Why is the aged husbandman more skilful in his
calling than the young beginner but because there is a
certain uniformity in the operation of the sun； rain； and
earth towards the production of vegetables； and experience
teaches the old practitioner the rules by which this
operation is governed and directed。
We must not； however； expect that this uniformity of
human actions should be carried to such a length as that all
men； in the same circumstances； will always act precisely in
the same manner； without making any allowance for the
diversity of characters； prejudices； and opinions。 Such a
uniformity in every particular； is found in no part of
nature。 On the contrary； from observing the variety of
conduct in different men； we are enabled to form a greater
variety of maxims； which still suppose a degree of
uniformity and regularity。
Are the manners of men different in different ages and
countries？ We learn thence the great force of custom and
education； which mould the human mind from its infancy an