the psychology of revolution- 第4部分

to　explain；　by　means　of　rational　logic；　a　host　of　phenomena　which

are　foreign　to　it。



Events　such　as　the　Reformation；　which　overwhelmed　France　for　a

period　of　fifty　years；　were　in　no　wise　determined　by　rational

influences。　　Yet　rational　influences　are　always　invoked　in

explanation；　even　in　the　most　recent　works。　　Thus；　in　the

General　History　of　Messrs。　Lavisse　and　Rambaud；　we　read　the

following　explanation　of　the　Reformation：



‘‘It　was　a　spontaneous　movement；　born　here　and　there　amidst　the

people；　from　the　reading　of　the　Gospels　and　the　free　individual

reflections　which　were　suggested　to　simple　persons　by　an

extremely　pious　conscience　and　a　very　bold　reasoning　power。''



Contrary　to　the　assertion　of　these　historians；　we　may　say　with

certainty；　in　the　first　place；　that　such　movements　are　never

spontaneous；　and　secondly；　that　reason　takes　no　part　in　their

elaboration。



The　force　of　the　political　and　religious　beliefs　which　have　moved

the　world　resides　precisely　in　the　fact　that；　being　born　of

affective　and　mystic　elements；　they　are　neither　created　nor

directed　by　reason。



Political　or　religious　beliefs　have　a　common　origin　and　obey　the

same　laws。　　They　are　formed　not　with　the　aid　of　reason；　but　more

often　contrary　to　all　reason。　　Buddhism；　Islamism；　the

Reformation；　Jacobinism；　Socialism；　&c。；　seem　very　different

forms　of　thought。　　Yet　they　have　identical　affective　and　mystic

bases；　and　obey　a　logic　that　has　no　affinity　with　rational　logic。



Political　revolutions　may　result　from　beliefs　established　in　the

minds　of　men；　but　many　other　causes　produce　them。　　The　word

discontent　sums　them　up。　　As　soon　as　discontent　is　generalised　a

party　is　formed　which　often　becomes　strong　enough　to　struggle

against　the　Government。



Discontent　must　generally　have　been　accumulating　for　a　long　time

in　order　to　produce　its　effects。　　For　this　reason　a　revolution

does　not　always　represent　a　phenomenon　in　process　of　termination

followed　by　another　which　is　commencing　but　rather　a　continuous

phenomenon；　having　somewhat　accelerated　its　evolution。　　All　the

modern　revolutions；　however；　have　been　abrupt　movements；

entailing　the　instantaneous　overthrow　of　governments。　　Such；　for

example；　were　the　Brazilian；　Portuguese；　Turkish；　and　Chinese

revolutions。



To　the　contrary　of　what　might　be　supposed；　the　very　conservative

peoples　are　addicted　to　the　most　violent　revolutions。　　Being

conservative；　they　are　not　able　to　evolve　slowly；　or　to　adapt

themselves　to　variations　of　environment；　so　that　when　the

discrepancy　becomes　too　extreme　they　are　bound　to　adapt

themselves　suddenly。　　This　sudden　evolution　constitutes　a

revolution。



Peoples　able　to　adapt　themselves　progressively　do　not　always

escape　revolution。　　It　was　only　by　means　of　a　revolution　that　the

English；　in　1688；　were　able　to　terminate　the　struggle　which　had

dragged　on　for　a　century　between　the　monarchy；　which　sought　to

make　itself　absolute；　and　the　nation；　which　claimed　the　right　to

govern　itself　through　the　medium　of　its　representatives。



The　great　revolutions　have　usually　commenced　from　the　top；　not

from　the　bottom；　but　once　the　people　is　unchained　it　is　to　the

people　that　revolution　owes　its　might。



It　is　obvious　that　revolutions　have　never　taken　place；　and　will

never　take　place；　save　with　the　aid　of　an　important　fraction　of

the　army。　　Royalty　did　not　disappear　in　France　on　the　day　when

Louis　XVI。　was　guillotined；　but　at　the　precise　moment　when　his

mutinous　troops　refused　to　defend　him。



It　is　more　particularly　by　mental　contagion　that　armies　become

disaffected；　being　indifferent　enough　at　heart　to　the　established

order　of　things。　　As　soon　as　the　coalition　of　a　few　officers　had

succeeded　in　overthrowing　the　Turkish　Government　the　Greek

officers　thought　to　imitate　them　and　to　change　their　government；

although　there　was　no　analogy　between　the　two　regimes。



A　military　movement　may　overthrow　a　governmentand　in　the

Spanish　republics　the　Government　is　hardly　ever　destroyed　by　any

other　meansbut　if　the　revolution　is　to　be　productive　of　great

results　it　must　always　be　based　upon　general　discontent　and

general　hopes。



Unless　it　is　universal　and　excessive；　discontent　alone　is　not

sufficient　to　bring　about　a　revolution。　　It　is　easy　to　lead　a

handful　of　men　to　pillage；　destroy；　and　massacre；　but　to　raise　a

whole　people；　or　any　great　portion　of　that　people；　calls　for　the

continuous　or　repeated　action　of　leaders。　　These　exaggerate　the

discontent；　they　persuade　the　discontented　that　the　government　is

the　sole　cause　of　all　the　trouble；　especially　of　the　prevailing

dearth；　and　assure　men　that　the　new　system　proposed　by　them　will

engender　an　age　of　felicity。　　These　ideas　germinate；　propagating

themselves　by　suggestion　and　contagion；　and　the　moment　arrives

when　the　revolution　is　ripe。



In　this　fashion　the　Christian　Revolution　and　the　French

Revolution　were　prepared。　　That　the　latter　was　effected　in　a　few

years；　while　the　first　required　many；　was　due　to　the　fact　that

the　French　Revolution　promptly　had　an　armed　force　at　its

disposal；　while　Christianity　was　long　in　winning　material　power。　

In　the　beginning　its　only　adepts　were　the　lowly；　the　poor；　and

the　slaves；　filled　with　enthusiasm　by　the　prospect　of　seeing

their　miserable　life　transformed　into　an　eternity　of　delight。　　By

a　phenomenon　of　contagion　from　below；　of　which　history　affords　us

more　than　one　example；　the　doctrine　finally　invaded　the　upper

strata　of　the　nation；　but　it　was　a　long　time　before　an

emperor　considered　the　new　faith　sufficiently　widespread　to　be

adopted　as　the　official　religion。





4。　　The　Results　of　Political　Revolutions。





When　a　political　party　is　triumphant　it　naturally　seeks　to

organise　society　in　accordance　with　its　interests。　　The

organisation　will　differ　accordingly　as　the　revolution　has　been

effected　by　the　soldiers；　the　Radicals；　or　the　Conservatives；　&c。



The　new　laws　and　institutions　will　depend　on　the　interests　of　the

triumphant　party　and　of　the　classes　which　have　assisted　itthe

clergy　for　instance。



If　the　revolution　has　triumphed　only　after　a　violent　struggle；　as

was　the　case　with　the　French　Revolution；　the　victors　will　reject

at　one　sweep　the　whole　arsenal　of　the　old　law。　　The　supporters　of

the　fallen　regime　will　be　persecuted；　exiled；　or　exterminated。



The　maximum　of　violence　in　these　persecutions　is　attained　when

the　triumphant　party　is　defending　a　belief　in　addition　to　its

material　interests。　　Then　the　conquered　need　hope　for　no　pity。　

Thus　may　be　explained　the　expulsion　of　the　Moors　from　Spain；　the

autodafes　of　the　Inquisition；　the　executions　of　the

Convention；　and　the　recent　laws　against　the　religious

congregations　in　France。



The　absolute　power　which　is　assumed　by　the　victors　leads　them

sometimes　to　extreme　measures；　such　as　the　Convention's　decree

that　gold　was　to　be　replaced　by　paper；　that　goods　were　to　be　sold

at　determined　prices；　&c。　　Very　soon　it　runs　up　against　a　wall　of

unavoidable　necessities；　which　turn　opinion　against　its　tyranny；

and　finally　leave　it　defenceless　before　attack；　as　befell　at　the

end　of　the　French　Revolution。　　The　same　thing　happened

recently　to　a　Socialist　Australian　ministry　composed　almost

exclusively　of　working…men。　　It　enacted　laws　so　absurd；　and

accorded　such　privileges　to　the　trade　unions；　that　public　opinion

rebelled　against　it　so　unanimously　that　in　three　months　it　was

overthrown。



But　the　cases　we　have　considered　are　exceptional。　　The　majority

of　revolutions　have　been　accomplished　in　order　to　place　a　new

sovereign　in　power。　　Now　this　sovereign　knows　very　well　that　the

first　condition　of　maintaining　his　power　consists　in　not　too

exclusively　favouring　a　single　class；　but　in　seeking　to

conciliate　all。　　To　do　this　he　will　establish　a　sort　of

equilibrium　between　them；　so　as　not　to　be　dominated　by　any　one　of

these　classes。　　To　allow　one　class　to　become　predominant　is　to

condemn　himself　presently　to　accept　that　class　as　his　master。　

This　law　is　one　of　the　most　certain　of　political　psychology。　　The

kings　of　France　understood　it　very　well　when　they　struggled　so

energetically　against　the　encroachments　first　of　the　nobility　and

then　of　the　clergy。　　If　they　had　not　done　so　their　fate　would

have　been　that　of　the　German　Emperors　of　the　Middle　Ages；　who；

excommunicated　by　the　Pope；　were　reduced；　like　Henry　IV。　at

Canossa；　to　make　a　pilgrimage　and　humbly　to　sue　for　the　Pope's

forgiveness。



This　same　law　has　continually　been　verified　during　the　course　of

history。　　When　at　the　end　of　the　Roman　Empire　the　military　caste

became　preponderant；　the　emperors　depended　entirely　upon　their

soldiers；　who　appointed　and　deposed　them　at　will。



It　was　therefore　a　great　advantage　for　France　that　she　was　so

long　governed　by　a　monarch　almost　absolute；　supposed　to

hold　his　power　by　divine　right；　and　surrounded　therefore　by　a

considerable　prestige。　　Without　such　an　authority　he　could　have

controlled　neither　the　feudal　nobility；　nor　the　clergy；　nor　the

parliaments。　　If　Poland；　towards　the　end　of　the　sixteenth

century；　had　also　possessed　an　absolute　and　respected　monarchy；

she　would　not　have　descended　the　path　of　decadence　which　led　to

her　disappearance　from　the　map　of　Europe。



We　have　shewn　in　this　chapter　that　political　revolutions　may　be

accompanied　by　important　social　transformations。　　We　shall　soon

see　how　slight　are　these　transformations　compared　to　those

produced　by　religious　revolutions。







CHAPTER　II



RELIGIOUS　REVOLUTIONS



1。　　The　importance　of　the　study　of　Religious　Revolutions　in

respect　of　the　comprehension　of　the　great　Political　Revolutions。





A　portion　of　this　work　will　be　devoted　to　the　French　Revolution。　

It　was　full　of　acts　of　violence　which　naturally　had　their

psychological　causes。



These　exceptional　events　will　always　fill　us　with　astonis