the psychology of revolution- 第5部分

psychological　causes。



These　exceptional　events　will　always　fill　us　with　astonishment；

and　we　even　feel　them　to　be　inexplicable。　　They　become

comprehensible；　however；　if　we　consider　that　the　French

Revolution；　constituting　a　new　religion；　was　bound　to　obey　the

laws　which　condition　the　propagation　of　all　beliefs。　　Its　fury

and　its　hecatombs　will　then　become　intelligible。



In　studying　the　history　of　a　great　religious　revolution；　that　of

the　Reformation；　we　shall　see　that　a　number　of　psychological

elements　which　figured　therein　were　equally　active　during　the

French　Revolution。　　In　both　we　observe　the　insignificant　bearing

of　the　rational　value　of　a　belief　upon　its　propagation；　the

inefficacy　of　persecution；　the　impossibility　of　tolerance　between

contrary　beliefs；　and　the　violence　and　the　desperate　struggles

resulting　from　the　conflict　of　different　faiths。　　We　also　observe

the　exploitation　of　a　belief　by　interests　quite　independent

of　that　belief。　　Finally　we　see　that　it　is　impossible　to　modify

the　convictions　of　men　without　also　modifying　their　existence。



These　phenomena　verified；　we　shall　see　plainly　why　the　gospel　of

the　Revolution　was　propagated　by　the　same　methods　as　all　the

religious　gospels；　notably　that　of　Calvin。　　It　could　not　have

been　propagated　otherwise。



But　although　there　are　close　analogies　between　the　genesis　of　a

religious　revolution；　such　as　the　Reformation；　and　that　of　a

great　political　revolution　like　our　own；　their　remote

consequences　are　very　different；　which　explains　the　difference　of

duration　which　they　display。　　In　religious　revolutions　no

experience　can　reveal　to　the　faithful　that　they　are　deceived；

since　they　would　have　to　go　to　heaven　to　make　the　discovery。　　In

political　revolutions　experience　quickly　demonstrates　the　error

of　a　false　doctrine　and　forces　men　to　abandon　it。



Thus　at　the　end　of　the　Directory　the　application　of　Jacobin

beliefs　had　led　France　to　such　a　degree　of　ruin；　poverty；　and

despair　that　the　wildest　Jacobins　themselves　had　to　renounce

their　system。　　Nothing　survived　of　their　theories　except　a　few

principles　which　cannot　be　verified　by　experience；　such　as　the

universal　happiness　which　equality　should　bestow　upon　humanity。





2。　　The　beginnings　of　the　Reformation　and　its　first　disciples。





The　Reformation　was　finally　to　exercise　a　profound　influence　upon

the　sentiments　and　moral　ideas　of　a　great　proportion　of　mankind。　

Modest　in　its　beginnings；　it　was　at　first　a　simple　struggle

against　the　abuses　of　the　clergy；　and；　from　a　practical　point　of

view；　a　return　to　the　prescriptions　of　the　Gospel。　　It　never

constituted；　as　has　been　claimed；　an　aspiration　towards　freedom

of　thought。　　Calvin　was　as　intolerant　as　Robespierre；　and　all　the

theorists　of　the　age　considered　that　the　religion　of　subjects

must　be　that　of　the　prince　who　governed　them。　　Indeed　in　every

country　where　the　Reformation　was　established　the　sovereign

replaced　the　Pope　of　Rome；　with　the　same　rights　and　the　same

powers。



In　France；　in　default　of　publicity　and　means　of　communication；

the　new　faith　spread　slowly　enough　at　first。　　It　was　about　1520

that　Luther　recruited　a　few　adepts；　and　only　towards　1535　was　the

new　belief　sufficiently　widespread　for　men　to　consider　it

necessary　to　burn　its　disciples。



In　conformity　with　a　well…known　psychological　law；　these

executions　merely　favoured　the　propagation　of　the　Reformation。　

Its　first　followers　included　priests　and　magistrates；　but　were

principally　obscure　artisans。　　Their　conversion　was　effected

almost　exclusively　by　mental　contagion　and　suggestion。



As　soon　as　a　new　belief　extends　itself；　we　see　grouped　round　it

many　persons　who　are　indifferent　to　the　belief；　but　who　find　in

it　a　pretext　or　opportunity　for　gratifying　their　passions　or

their　greed。　　This　phenomenon　was　observed　at　the　time　of　the

Reformation　in　many　countries；　notably　in　Germany　and　in　England。



Luther　having　taught　that　the　clergy　had　no　need　of　wealth；　the

German　lords　found　many　merits　in　a　faith　which　enabled　them　to

seize　upon　the　goods　of　the　Church。　　Henry　VIII。　enriched

himself　by　a　similar　operation。　　Sovereigns　who　were　often

molested　by　the　Pope　could　as　a　rule　only　look　favourably　upon　a

doctrine　which　added　religious　powers　to　their　political　powers

and　made　each　of　them　a　Pope。　　Far　from　diminishing　the

absolutism　of　rulers；　the　Reformation　only　exaggerated　it。





3。　　Rational　value　of　the　doctrines　of　the　Reformation。





The　Reformation　overturned　all　Europe；　and　came　near　to　ruining

France；　of　which　it　made　a　battle…field　for　a　period　of　fifty

years。　　Never　did　a　cause　so　insignificant　from　the　rational

point　of　view　produce　such　great　results。



Here　is　one　of　the　innumerable　proofs　of　the　fact　that　beliefs

are　propagated　independently　of　all　reason。　　The　theological

doctrines　which　aroused　men's　passions　so　violently；　and　notably

those　of　Calvin；　are　not　even　worthy　of　examination　in　the　light

of　rational　logic。



Greatly　concerned　about　his　salvation；　having　an　excessive　fear

of　the　devil；　which　his　confessor　was　unable　to　allay；　Luther

sought　the　surest　means　of　pleasing　God　that　he　might　avoid　Hell。



Having　commenced　by　denying　the　Pope　the　right　to　sell

indulgences；　he　presently　entirely　denied　his　authority；　and　that

of　the　Church；　condemned　religious　ceremonies；　confession；　and

the　worship　of　the　saints；　and　declared　that　Christians　should

have　no　rules　of　conduct　other　than　the　Bible。　　He　also

considered　that　no　one　could　be　saved　without　the　grace　of　God。



This　last　theory；　known　as　that　of　predestination；　was　in　Luther

rather　uncertain；　but　was　stated　precisely　by　Calvin；　who　made　it

the　very　foundation　of　a　doctrine　to　which　the　majority　of

Protestants　are　still　subservient。　　According　to　him：　‘‘From

all　eternity　God　has　predestined　certain　men　to　be　burned　and

others　to　be　saved。''　　Why　this　monstrous　iniquity？　　Simply

because　‘‘it　is　the　will　of　God。''



Thus　according　to　Calvin；　who　for　that　matter　merely　developed

certain　assertions　of　St。　Augustine；　an　all…powerful　God　would

amuse　Himself　by　creating　living　beings　simply　in　order　to　burn

them　during　all　eternity；　without　paying　any　heed　to　their　acts

or　merits。　　It　is　marvellous　that　such　revolting　insanity　could

for　such　a　length　of　time　subjugate　so　many　mindsmarvellous

that　it　does　so　still。＇1＇







＇1＇　The　doctrine　of　predestination　is　still　taught　in　Protestant

catechisms；　as　is　proved　by　the　following　passage　extracted　from

the　last　edition　of　an　official　catechism　for　which　I　sent　to

Edinburgh：



‘‘By　the　decree　of　God；　for　the　manifestation　of　His　glory；　some

men　and　angels　are　predestinated　unto　everlasting　life；　and

others　foreordained　to　everlasting　death。



‘‘These　angels　and　men；　thus　predestinated　and　foreordained；　are

particularly　and　unchangeably　designed；　and　their　number　is　so

certain　and　definite　that　it　cannot　be　either　increased　or

diminished。



‘‘Those　of　mankind　that　are　predestinated　unto　life；　God；　before

the　foundation　of　the　world　was　laid；　according　to　His　eternal

and　immutable　purpose；　and　the　secret　counsel　and　good　pleasure

of　His　will；　hath　chosen　in　Christ　unto　everlasting　glory；　out　of

His　mere　free　grace　and　love；　without　any　foresight　of　faith　or

good　works；　or　perseverance　in　either　of　them；　or　any　other　thing

in　the　creature；　as　conditions；　or　causes　moving　him　thereunto；

and　all　to　the　praise　of　his　glorious　grace。



‘‘As　God　hath　appointed　the　elect　unto　glory；　so　hath　He；　by　the

eternal　and　most　free　purpose　of　His　will；　foreordained　all　the

means　thereunto。　　Wherefore　they　who　are　elected　being　fallen　in

Adam；　are　redeemed　by　Christ；　are　effectually　called　unto　faith

in　Christ　by　His　spirit　working　in　due　season；　are　justified；

adopted；　sanctified；　and　kept　by　His　power　through　faith　unto

salvation。　　Neither　are　any　other　redeemed　by　Christ；　effectually

called；　justified；　adopted；　sanctified；　and　saved；　but　the　elect

only。''







The　psychology　of　Calvin　is　not　without　affinity　with　that　of

Robespierre。　　Like　the　latter；　the　master　of　the　pure　truth；　he

sent　to　death　those　who　would　not　accept　his　doctrines。　　God；　he

stated；　wishes　‘‘that　one　should　put　aside　all　humanity　when　it

is　a　question　of　striving　for　his　glory。''



The　case　of　Calvin　and　his　disciples　shows　that　matters　which

rationally　are　the　most　contradictory　become　perfectly　reconciled

in　minds　which　are　hypnotised　by　a　belief。　　In　the　eyes　of

rational　logic；　it　seems　impossible　to　base　a　morality　upon　the

theory　of　predestination；　since　whatever　they　do　men　are　sure　of

being　either　saved　or　damned。　　However；　Calvin　had　no　difficulty

in　erecting　a　most　severe　morality　upon　this　totally　illogical

basis。　　Considering　themselves　the　elect　of　God；　his　disciples

were　so　swollen　by　pride　and　the　sense　of　their　own　dignity　that

they　felt　obliged　to　serve　as　models　in　their　conduct。





4。　　Propagation　of　the　Reformation。





The　new　faith　was　propagated　not　by　speech；　still　less　by　process

of　reasoning；　but　by　the　mechanism　described　in　our　preceding

work：　that　is；　by　the　influence　of　affirmation；　repetition；

mental　contagion；　and　prestige。　　At　a　much　later　date

revolutionary　ideas　were　spread　over　France　in　the　same　fashion。



Persecution；　as　we　have　already　remarked；　only　favoured　this

propagation。　　Each　execution　led　to　fresh　conversions；　as　was

seen　in　the　early　years　of　the　Christian　Church。　　Anne　Dubourg；

Parliamentary　councillor；　condemned　to　be　burned　alive；　marched

to　the　stake　exhorting　the　crowd　to　be　converted。　　‘‘His　

constancy；''　says　a　witness；　‘‘made　more　Protestants　among　the

young　men　of　the　colleges　than　the　books　of　Calvin。''



To　prevent　the　condemned　from　speaking　to　the　people　their

tongues　were　cut　out　before　they　were　burned。　　The　horror　of

their