the psychology of revolution- 第43部分

France　has　seen　during　the　past　century　having　been　explained；　it

will　now　suffice　to　present　a　summary　picture　of　these　successive

revolutions。



The　sovereigns　in　coalition　having　defeated　Napoleon；　they

reduced　France　to　her　former　limits；　and　placed　Louis　XVIII。；　the

only　possible　sovereign；　on　the　throne。



By　a　special　charter　the　new　king　accepted　the　position　of　a

constitutional　monarch　under　a　representative　system　of

government。　　He　recognised　all　the　conquests　of　the　Revolution：

the　civil　Code；　equality　before　the　law；　liberty　of　worship；

irrevocability　of　the　sale　of　national　property；　&c。　　The　right

of　suffrage；　however；　was　limited　to　those　paying　a　certain

amount　in　taxes。



This　liberal　Constitution　was　opposed　by　the　ultra…royalists。　

Returned　emigres；　they　wanted　the　restitution　of　the　national

property；　and　the　re…establishment　of　their　ancient　privileges。



Fearing　that　such　a　reaction　might　cause　a　new　revolution；　Louis

XVIII。　was　reduced　to　dissolving　the　Chamber。　　The　election

having　returned　moderate　deputies；　he　was　able　to　continue　to

govern　with　the　same　principles；　understanding　very　well　that　any

attempt　to　govern　the　French　by　the　ancien　regime　would　be

enough　to　provoke　a　general　rebellion。



Unfortunately；　his　death；　in　1824；　placed　Charles　X。；　formerly

Comte　d'Artois；　on　the　throne。　　Extremely　narrow；　incapable　of

understanding　the　new　world　which　surrounded　him；　and　boasting

that　he　had　not　modified　his　ideas　since　1789；　he　prepared　a

series　of　reactionary　lawsa　law　by　which　an　indemnity　of　forty

millions　sterling　was　to　be　paid　to　emigres；　a　law　of　sacrilege；

and　laws　establishing　the　rights　of　primogeniture；　the

preponderance　of　the　clergy；　&c。



The　majority　of　the　deputies　showing　themselves　daily　more

opposed　to　his　projects；　in　1830　he　enacted　Ordinances　dissolving

the　Chamber；　suppressing　the　liberty　of　the　Press；　and　preparing

for　the　restoration　of　the　ancien　regime。



The　effect　was　immediate。　　This　autocratic　action　provoked　a

coalition　of　the　leaders　of　all　parties。　　Republicans；

Bonapartists；　Liberals；　Royalistsall　united　in　order　to　raise

the　Parisian　populace。　　Four　days　after　the　publication　of　the

Ordinances　the　insurgents　were　masters　of　the　capital；　and

Charles　X。　fled　to　England。



The　leaders　of　the　movementThiers；　Casimir…Perier；　La　Fayette；

&c。summoned　to　Paris　Louis…Philippe；　of　whose　existence　the

people　were　scarcely　aware；　and　declared　him　king　of　the　French。



Between　the　indifference　of　the　people　and　the　hostility　of　the

nobles；　who　had　remained　faithful　to　the　legitimate　dynasty；　the

new　king　relied　chiefly　upon　the　bourgeoisie。　　An　electoral　law

having　reduced　the　electors　to　less　than　200；000；　this　class

played　an　exclusive　part　in　the　government。



The　situation　of　the　sovereign　was　not　easy。　　He　had　to　struggle

simultaneously　against　the　legitimist　supporters　of　Henry

V。　the　grandson　of　Charles　X。；　and　the　Bonapartists；　who

recognised　as　their　head　Louis…Napoleon；　the　Emperor's　nephew；

and　finally　against　the　republicans。



By　means　of　their　secret　societies；　analogous　to　the　clubs　of　the

Revolution；　the　latter　provoked　numerous　riots　at　various

intervals　between　1830　and　1840；　but　these　were　easily　repressed。



The　clericals　and　legitimists；　on　their　side；　did　not　cease　their

intrigues。　　The　Duchess　de　Berry；　the　mother　of　Henry　V。；　tried

in　vain　to　raise　the　Vendee。　　As　to　the　clergy；　their　demands

finally　made　them　so　intolerable　that　an　insurrection　broke　out；

in　the　course　of　which　the　palace　of　the　archbishop　of　Paris　was

sacked。



The　republicans　as　a　party　were　not　very　dangerous；　as　the

Chamber　sided　with　the　king　in　the　struggle　against　them。　　The

minister　Guizot；　who　advocated　a　strong　central　power；　declared

that　two　things　were　indispensable　to　government‘‘reason　and

cannon。''　　The　famous　statesman　was　surely　somewhat　deluded　as　to

the　necessity　or　efficacy　of　reason。



Despite　this　strong　central　power；　which　in　reality　was　not

strong；　the　republicans；　and　above　all　the　Socialists；　continued

to　agitate。　　One　of　the　most　influential；　Louis　Blanc；　claimed

that　it　was　the　duty　of　the　Government　to　procure　work　for　every

citizen。　　The　Catholic　party；　led　by　Lacordaire　and　Montalembert；

united　with　the　Socialistsas　to…day　in　Belgiumto　oppose　the

Government。



A　campaign　in　favour　of　electoral　reform　ended　in　1848　in　a　fresh

riot；　which　unexpectedly　overthrew　Louis…Philippe。



His　fall　was　far　less　justifiable　than　that　of　Charles　X。　　There

was　little　with　which　he　could　be　reproached。　　Doubtless　he　was

suspicious　of　universal　suffrage；　but　the　French　Revolution　had

more　than　once　been　quite　suspicious　of　it。　　Louis…Philippe　not

being；　like　the　Directory；　an　absolute　ruler；　could　not；　as　the

latter　had　done；　annul　unfavourable　elections。



A　provisional　Government　was　installed　in　the　Hotel　de　Ville；

to　replace　the　fallen　monarchy。　　It　proclaimed　the　Republic；

established　universal　suffrage；　and　decreed　that　the　people

should　proceed　to　the　election　of　a　National　Assembly　of　nine

hundred　members。



From　the　first　days　of　its　existence　the　new　Government　found

itself　the　victim　of　socialistic　manoeuvres　and　riots。



The　psychological　phenomena　observed　during　the　first　Revolution

were　now　to　be　witnessed　again。　　Clubs　were　formed；　whose　leaders

sent　the　people　from　time　to　time　against　the　Assembly；　for

reasons　which　were　generally　quite　devoid　of　common　sensefor

example；　to　force　the　Government　to　support　an　insurrection　in

Poland；　&c。



In　the　hope　of　satisfying　the　Socialists；　every　day　more　noisy

and　exigent；　the　Assembly　organised　national　workshops；　in　which

the　workers　were　occupied　in　various　forms　of　labour。　　In　these

100；000　men　cost　the　State　more　than　L40；000　weekly。　　Their

claim　to　receive　pay　without　working　for　it　forced　the　Assembly

to　close　the　workshops。



This　measure　was　the　origin　of　a　formidable　insurrection；　50；000

workers　revolting。　　The　Assembly；　terrified；　confided　all

the　executive　powers　to　General　Cavaignac。　　There　was　a　four…days

battle　with　the　insurgents；　during　which　three　generals　and　the

Archbishop　of　Paris　were　killed；　3；000　prisoners　were　deported　by

the　Assembly　to　Algeria；　and　revolutionary　Socialism　was

annihilated　for　a　space　of　fifty　years。



These　events　brought　Government　stock　down　from　116　to　50　francs。　

Business　was　at　a　standstill。　　The　peasants；　who　thought

themselves　threatened　by　the　Socialists；　and　the　bourgeois；

whose　taxes　the　Assembly　had　increased　by　half；　turned　against

the　Republic；　and　when　Louis…Napoleon　promised　to　re…establish

order　he　found　himself　welcomed　with　enthusiasm。　　A　candidate　for

the　position　of　President　of　the　Republic；　who　according　to　the

new　Constitution　must　be　elected　by　the　whole　body　of　citizens；

he　was　chosen　by　5；500；000　votes。



Very　soon　at　odds　with　the　Chamber；　the　prince　decided　on　a　coup

d'etat。　　The　Assembly　was　dissolved；　30；000　persons　were

arrested；　10；000　deported；　and　a　hundred　deputies　were　exiled。



This　coup　d'etat；　although　summary；　was　very　favourably

received；　for　when　submitted　to　a　plebiscite　it　received

7；500；000　votes　out　of　8；000；000。



On　the　2nd　of　November；　1852；　Napoleon　had　himself　named　Emperor

by　an　even　greater　majority：　　The　horror　which　the　generality　of

Frenchmen　felt　for　demagogues　and　Socialists　had　restored　the

Empire。



In　the　first　part　of　its　existence　it　constituted　an　absolute

Government；　and　during　the　latter　half　a　liberal　Government。　

After　eighteen　years　of　rule　the　Emperor　was　overthrown　by　the

revolution　of　the　4th　of　September；　1870；　after　the　capitulation

of　Sedan。



Since　that　time　revolutionary　movements　have　been　rare；　the　only

one　of　importance　was　the　revolution　of　March；　1871；　which

resulted　in　the　burning　of　many　of　the　monuments　of　Paris　and　the

execution　of　about　20；000　insurgents。



After　the　war　of　1870　the　electors；　who；　amid　so　many　disasters；

did　not　know　which　way　to　turn；　sent　a　great　number　of　Orleanist

and　legitimist　deputies　to　the　Constituent　Assembly。　　Unable　to

agree　upon　the　establishment　of　a　monarchy；　they　appointed　M。

Thiers　President　of　the　Republic；　later　replacing　him　by　Marshal

MacMahon。　　In　1876　the　new　elections；　like　all　those　that　have

followed；　sent　a　majority　of　republicans　to　the　Chamber。



The　various　assemblies　which　have　succeeded　to　this　have　always

been　divided　into　numerous　parties；　which　have　provoked

innumerable　changes　of　ministry。



However；　thanks　to　the　equilibrium　resulting　from　this　division

of　parties；　we　have　for　forty　years　enjoyed　comparative　quiet。　

Four　Presidents　of　the　Republic　have　been　overthrown　without

revolution；　and　the　riots　that　have　occurred；　such　as　those　of

Champagne　and　the　Midi；　have　not　had　serious　consequences。



A　great　popular　movement；　in　1888；　did　nearly　overthrow　the

Republic　for　the　benefit　of　General　Boulanger；　but　it　has

survived　and　triumphed　over　the　attacks　of　all　parties。



Various　reasons　contribute　to　the　maintenance　of　the　present

Republic。　　In　the　first　place；　of　the　conflicting　factions

none　is　strong　enough　to　crush　the　rest。　　In　the　second　place；

the　head　of　the　State　being　purely　decorative；　and　possessing　no

power；　it　is　impossible　to　attribute　to　him　the　evils　from　which

the　country　may　suffer；　and　to　feel　sure　that　matters　would　be

different　were　he　overthrown。　　Finally；　as　the　supreme　power　is

distributed　among　thousands　of　hands；　responsibilities　are　so

disseminated　that　it　would　be　difficult　to　know　where　to　begin。　

A　tyrant　can　be　overthrown；　but　what　can　be　done　against　a　host

of　little　anonymous　tyrannies？



If　we　wished　to　sum　up　in　a　word　the　great　transformations　which

have　been　effected　in　France　by　a　century　of　riots　and

revolutions；　we　might　say　that　individual　tyrann