a incident； provided that such expression were made mutual； and； as a species of indemnity； it agreed to pay for canal rights to be acquired in Colombian territory and for the lease of certain islands as naval stations。 But neither the terms nor the amount of the compensation proved acceptable。 Instead； Colombia urged that the whole matter be referred to the judgment of the tribunal at The Hague。
Alluding to the use made of the liberties won in the struggle for emancipation from Spain by the native land of Miranda； Bolivar； and Sucre； on the part of the country which had been in the vanguard of the fight for freedom from a foreign yoke； a writer of Venezuela once declared that it had not elected legally a single President； had not put democratic ideas or institutions into practice； had lived wholly under dictatorships； had neglected public instruction； and had set up a large number of oppressive commercial monopolies； including the navigation of rivers； the coastwise trade； the pearl fisheries； and the sale of tobacco； salt； sugar； liquor； matches； explosives； butter； grease； cement； shoes； meat； and flour。 Exaggerated as the indictment is and applicable also； though in less degree； to some of the other backward countries of Hispanic America； it contains unfortunately a large measure of truth。 Indeed； so far as Venezuela itself is concerned； this critic might have added that every time a 〃restorer；〃 〃regenerator；〃 or 〃liberator〃 succumbed there； the old craze for federalism again broke out and menaced the nation with piecemeal destruction。 Obedient； furthermore； to the whims of a presidential despot； Venezuela perpetrated more outrages on foreigners and created more international friction after 1899 than any other land in Spanish America had ever done。
While the formidable Guzman Blanco was still alive； the various Presidents acted cautiously。 No sooner had he passed away than disorder broke out afresh。 Since a new dictator thought he needed a longer term of office and divers other administrative advantages； a constitution incorporating them was framed and published in the due and customary manner。 This had hardly gone into operation when； in 1895； a contest arose with Great Britain about the boundaries between Venezuela and British Guiana。 Under pressure from the United States； however； the matter was referred to arbitration； and Venezuela came out substantially the loser。
In 1899 there appeared on the scene a personage compared with whom Zelaya was the merest novice in the art of making trouble。 This was Cipriano Castro； the greatest international nuisance of the early twentieth century。 A rude； arrogant； fearless； energetic； capricious mountaineer and cattleman； he regarded foreigners no less than his own countryfolk； it would seem； as objects for his particular scorn； displeasure； exploitation； or amusement； as the case might be。 He was greatly angered by the way in which foreigners in dispute with local officials avoided a resort to Venezuelan courts andstill worserejected their decisions and appealed instead to their diplomatic representatives for protection。 He declared such a procedure to be an affront to the national dignity。 Yet foreigners were usually correct in arming that judges appointed by an arbitrary President were little more than figureheads； incapable of dispensing justice； even were they so inclined。
Jealous not only of his personal prestige but of what he imagined； or pretended to imagine； were the rights of a small nation； Castro tried throughout to portray the situation in such a light as to induce the other Hispanic republics also to view foreign interference as a dire peril to their own independence and sovereignty； and he further endeavored to involve the United States in a struggle with European powers as a means possibly of testing the efficacy of the Monroe Doctrine or of laying bare before the world the evil nature of American imperialistic designs。
By the year 1901； in which Venezuela adopted another constitution； the revolutionary disturbances had materially diminished the revenues from the customs。 Furthermore Castro's regulations exacting military service of all males between fourteen and sixty years of age had filled the prisons to overflowing。 Many foreigners who had suffered in consequence resorted to measures of self…defenseamong them representatives of certain American and British asphalt companies which were working concessions granted by Castro's predecessors。 Though familiar with what commonly happens to those who handle pitch； they had not scrupled to aid some of Castro's enemies。 Castro forthwith imposed on them enormous fines which amounted practically to a confiscation of their rights。
While the United States and Great Britain were expostulating over this behavior of the despot； France broke off diplomatic relations with Venezuela because of Castro's refusal either to pay or to submit to arbitration certain claims which had originated in previous revolutions。 Germany； aggrieved in similar fashion； contemplated a seizure of the customs until its demands for redress were satisfied。 And then came Italy with like causes of complaint。 As if these complications were not sufficient； Venezuela came to blows with Colombia。
As the foreign pressure on Castro steadily increased； Luis Maria Drago； the Argentine Minister of Foreign Affairs； formulated in 1902 the doctrine with which his name has been associated。 It stated in substance that force should never be employed between nations for the collection of contractual debts。 Encouraged by this apparent token of support from a sister republic； Castro defied his array of foreign adversaries more vigorously than ever； declaring that he might find it needful to invade the United States； by way of New Orleans； to teach it the lesson it deserved！ But when he attempted； in the following year； to close the ports of Venezuela as a means of bringing his native antagonists to terms； Great Britain； Germany； and Italy seized his warships； blockaded the coast； and bombarded some of his forts。 Thereupon the United States interposed with a suggestion that the dispute be laid before the Hague Tribunal。 Although Castro yielded； he did not fail to have a clause inserted in a new 〃constitution〃 requiring foreigners who might wish to enter the republic to show certificates of good character from the Governments of their respective countries。
These incidents gave much food for thought to Castro as well as to his soberer compatriots。 The European powers had displayed an apparent willingness to have the United States； if it chose to do so； assume the role of a New World policeman and financial guarantor。 Were it to assume these duties； backward republics in the Caribbean and its vicinity were likely to have their affairs； internal as well as external； supervised by the big nation in order to ward off European intervention。 At this moment； indeed； the United States was intervening in Panama。 The prospect aroused in many Hispanic countries the fear of a 〃Yankee peril〃 greater even than that emanating from Europe。 Instead of being a kindly and disinterested protector of small neighbors； the 〃Colossus of the North〃 appeared rather to resemble a political and commercial ogre bent upon swallowing them to satisfy 〃manifest destiny。〃
Having succeeded in putting around his head an aureole of local popularity； Castro in 1905 picked a new set of partially justified quarrels with the United States； Great Britain； France； Italy； Colombia； and even with the Netherlands； arising out of the depredations of revolutionists； but an armed menace from the United States induced him to desist from his plans。 He contented himself accordingly with issuing a decree of amnesty for all political offenders except the leaders。 When 〃reelected；〃 he carried his magnanimity so far as to resign awhile in favor of the Vice President； stating that； if his retirement were to bring peace and concord； he would make it permanent。 But as he saw to it that his temporary withdrawal should not have this happy result； he came back again to his firmer position a few months later。
Venting his wrath upon the Netherlands because its minister had reported to his Government an outbreak of cholera at La Guaira； the chief seaport of Venezuela； the dictator laid an embargo on Dutch commerce； seized its ships； and denounced the Dutch for their alleged failure to check filibustering from their islands off the coast。 When the minister protested； Castro expelled him。 Thereupon the Netherlands instituted a blockade of the Venezuelan ports。 What might have happened if Castro had remained much longer in charge； may be guessed。 Toward the close of 1908； however； he departed for Europe to undergo a course of medical treatment。 Hardly had he left Venezuelan shores when Juan Vicente Gomez； the able； astute； and vigorous Vice President； managed to secure his own election to the presidency and an immediate recognition from foreign states。 Under his direction all of the international tangles of Venezuela were straightened out。
In 1914 the country adopted its eleventh constitution and thereby lengthened the presidential term to seven years； shortened that of members of the lower house of the Congress to four； determined definitely the number of States in the union； altered the apportionment of their congressional representation； and enlarged the powers of the federal Governmentor； rather； those of its executive branch！ In 1914 Gomez resigned office in favor of the Vice President； and secured an appointment instead as commander in chief of the army。 This procedure was promptly denounced as a trick to evade the constitutional prohibition of two consecutive terms。 A year later he was unanimously elected President； though he never formally took the oath of office。
Whatever may be thought of the political ways and means of this new Guzmin Blanco to maintain himself as a power behind or on the presidential throne； Gomez gave Venezuela an administration of a sort very different from that of his immediate predecessor。 He suppressed various government monopolies； removed other obstacles to the material advancement of the country； and reduced the national debt。 He did much also to improve the sanitary conditions at La Guaira