try； and reduced the national debt。 He did much also to improve the sanitary conditions at La Guaira； and he promoted education； especially the teaching of foreign languages。
Gomez nevertheless had to keep a watchful eye on the partisans of Castro； who broke out in revolt whenever they had an opportunity。 The United States； Great Britain； France； the Netherlands； Denmark； Cuba； and Colombia eyed the movements of the ex…dictator nervously； as European powers long ago were wont to do in the case of a certain Man of Destiny； and barred him out of both their possessions and Venezuela itself。 International patience； never Job…like； had been too sorely vexed to permit his return。 Nevertheless； after the manner of the ancient persecutor of the Biblical martyr； Castro did not refrain from going to and fro in the earth。 In fact he still 〃walketh about〃 seeking to recover his hold upon Venezuela！
CHAPTER X。 MEXICO IN REVOLUTION
When； in 1910； like several of its sister republics； Mexico celebrated the centennial anniversary of its independence； the era of peace and progress inaugurated by Porfirio Diaz seemed likely to last indefinitely； for he was entering upon his eighth term as President。 Brilliant as his career had been； however； and greatly as Mexico had prospered under his rigid rule； a sullen discontent had been brewing。 The country that had had but one continuous President in twenty…six years was destined to have some fourteen chief magistrates in less than a quarter of that time； and to surpass all its previous records for rapidity in presidential succession； by having one executive who is said to have held office for precisely fifty…six minutes！
It has often been asserted that the reason for the downfall of Diaz and the lapse of Mexico into the unhappy conditions of a half century earlier was that he had grown too old to keep a firm grip on the situation。 It has also been declared that his insistence upon reelection and upon the elevation of his own personal candidate to the vice presidency； as a successor in case of his retirement； occasioned his overthrow。 The truth of the matter is that these circumstances were only incidental to his downfall； the real causes of revolution lay deeprooted in the history of these twenty…six years。 The most significant feature of the revolt was its civilian character。 A widespread public opinion had been created； a national consciousness had been awakened which was intolerant of abuses and determined upon their removal at any cost； and this public opinion and national consciousness were products of general education； which had brought to the fore a number of intelligent men eager to participate in public affairs and yet barred out because of their unwillingness to support the existing regime。
Some one has remarked； and rightly； that Diaz in his zeal for the material advancement of Mexico； mistook the tangible wealth of the country for its welfare。 Desirable and even necessary as that material progress was； it produced only a one…sided prosperity。 Diaz was singularly deaf to the just complaints of the people of the laboring classes； who； as manufacturing and other industrial enterprises developed； were resolved to better their conditions。 In the country at large the discontent was still stronger。 Throughout many of the rural districts general advancement had been retarded because of the holding of huge areas of fertile land by a comparatively few rich families； who did little to improve it and were content with small returns from the labor of throngs of unskilled native cultivators。 Wretchedly paid and housed； and toiling long hours； the workers lived like the serfs of medieval days or as their own ancestors did in colonial times。 Ignorant； poverty…stricken； liable at any moment to be dispossessed of the tiny patch of ground on which they raised a few hills of corn or beans； most of them were naturally a simple； peaceful folk who； in spite of their misfortunes； might have gone on indefinitely with their drudgery in a hopeless apathetic fashion； unless their latent savage instincts happened to be aroused by drink and the prospect of plunder。 On the other hand； the intelligent among them； knowing that in some of the northern States of the republic wages were higher and treatment fairer； felt a sense of wrong which； like that of the laboring class in the towns； was all the more dangerous because it was not allowed to find expression。
Diaz thought that what Mexico required above everything else was the development of industrial efficiency and financial strength； assured by a maintenance of absolute order。 Though disposed to do justice in individual cases； he would tolerate no class movements of any kind。 Labor unions； strikes； and other efforts at lightening the burden of the workers he regarded as seditious and deserving of severe punishment。 In order to attract capital from abroad as the best means of exploiting the vast resources of the country； he was willing to go to any length； it would seem； in guaranteeing protection。 Small wonder； therefore； that the people who shared in none of the immediate advantages from that source should have muttered that Mexico was the 〃mother of foreigners and the stepmother of Mexicans。〃 And； since so much of the capital came from the United States； the antiforeign sentiment singled Americans out for its particular dislike。
If Diaz appeared unable to appreciate the significance of the educational and industrial awakening； he was no less oblivious of the political outcome。 He knew； of course； that the Mexican constitution made impossible demands upon the political capacity of the people。 He was himself mainly of Indian blood and he believed that he understood the temperament and limitations of most Mexicans。 Knowing how tenaciously they clung to political notions； he believed that it was safer and wiser to forego； at least for a time； real popular government and to concentrate power in the hands of a strong man who could maintain order。
Accordingly； backed by his political adherents； known as cientificos （doctrinaires）； some of whom had acquired a sinister ascendancy over him； and also by the Church； the landed proprietors； and the foreign capitalists； Diaz centered the entire administration more and more in himself。 Elections became mere farces。 Not only the federal officials themselves but the state governors； the members of the state legislatures； and all others in authority during the later years of his rule owed their selection primarily to him and held their positions only if personally loyal to him。 Confident of his support and certain that protests against misgovernment would be regarded by the President as seditious； many of them abused their power at will。 Notable among them were the local officials； called jefes politicos； whose control of the police force enabled them to indulge in practices of intimidation and extortion which ultimately became unendurable。
Though symptoms of popular wrath against the Diaz regime； or diazpotism as the Mexicans termed it； were apparent as early as 1908； it was not until January； 1911； that the actual revolution came。 It was headed by Francisco I。 Madero； a member of a wealthy and distinguished family of landed proprietors in one of the northern States。 What the revolutionists demanded in substance was the retirement of the President； Vice President； and Cabinet； a return to the principle of no reelection to the chief magistracy； a guarantee of fair elections at all times； the choice of capable； honest； and impartial judges； jefes politicos； and other officials； and； in particular； a series of agrarian and industrial reforms which would break up the great estates； create peasant proprietorships； and better the conditions of the working classes。 Disposed at first to treat the insurrection lightly； Diaz soon found that he had underestimated its strength。 Grants of some of the demands and promises of reform were met with a dogged insistence upon his own resignation。 Then； as the rebellion spread to the southward； the masterful old man realized that his thirty…one years of rule were at an end。 On the 25th of May； therefore； he gave up his power and sailed for Europe。
Madero was chosen President five months later； but the revolution soon passed beyond his control。 He was a sincere idealist； if not something of a visionary； actuated by humane and kindly sentiments； but he lacked resoluteness and the art of managing men。 He was too prolific； also； of promises which he must have known he could not keep。 Yielding to family influence； he let his followers get out of hand。 Ambitious chieftains and groups of Radicals blocked and thwarted him at every turn。 When he could find no means of carrying out his program without wholesale confiscation and the disruption of business interests； he was accused of abandoning his duty。 One officer after another deserted him and turned rebel。 Brigandage and insurrection swept over the country and threatened to involve it in ugly complications with the United States and European powers。 At length； in February； 1913； came the blow that put an end to all of Madero's efforts and aspirations。 A military uprising in the city of Mexico made him prisoner； forced him to resign； and set up a provisional government under the dictatorship of Victoriano Huerta； one of his chief lieutenants。 Two weeks later both Madero and the Vice President were assassinated while on their way supposedly to a place of safety。
Huerta was a rough soldier of Indian origin； possessed of unusual force of character and strength of will； ruthless； cunning； and in bearing alternately dignified and vulgar。 A cientifico in political faith； he was disposed to restore the Diaz regime； so far as an application of shrewdness and force could make it possible。 But from the outset he found an obstacle confronting him that he could not surmount。 Though acknowledged by European countries and by many of the Hispanic republics； he could not win recognition from the United States； either as provisional President or as a candidate for regular election to the office。 Whether personally responsible for the murder of Madero or not； he was not regarded by the American Government as entitled to recognition； on the ground that he was n