the nature of rent- 第3部分

landlord。　But　it　is　not　consistent　with　the　laws　of　nature；　and

the　limits　and　quality　of　the　earth；　that　this　state　of　things

should　continue。　Diversities　of　soil　and　situation　must

necessarily　exist　in　all　countries。　All　land　cannot　be　the　most

fertile：　all　situations　cannot　be　the　nearest　to　navigable　rivers

and　markets。　But　the　accumulation　of　capital　beyond　the　means　of

employing　it　on　land　of　the　greatest　natural　fertility；　and　the

greatest　advantage　of　situation；　must　necessarily　lower　profits；

while　the　tendency　of　population　to　increase　beyond　the　means　of

subsistence　must；　after　a　certain　time；　lower　the　wages　of

labour。

　　　　The　expense　of　production　will　thus　be　diminished；　but　the

value　of　the　produce；　that　is；　the　quantity　of　labour；　and　of　the

other　products　of　labour　besides　corn；　which　it　can　command；

instead　of　diminishing；　will　be　increased。　There　will　be　an

increasing　number　of　people　demanding　subsistence；　and　ready　to

offer　their　services　in　any　way　in　which　they　can　be　useful。　The

exchangeable　value　of　food　will；　therefore；　be　in　excess　above

the　cost　of　production；　including　in　this　cost　the　full　profits

of　the　stock　employed　upon　the　land；　according　to　the　actual　rate

of　profits；　at　the　time　being。　And　this　excess　is　rent。

　　　　Nor　is　it　possible　that　these　rents　should　permanently　remain

as　parts　of　the　profits　of　stock；　or　of　the　wages　of　labour。　If

such　an　accumulation　were　to　take　place；　as　decidedly　to　lower

the　general　profits　of　stock；　and；　consequently；　the　expenses　of

cultivation；　so　as　to　make　it　answer　to　cultivate　poorer　land；

the　cultivators　of　the　richer　land；　if　they　paid　no　rent；　would

cease　to　be　mere　farmers；　or　persons　living　upon　the　profits　of

agricultural　stock。　They　would　unite　the　characters　of　farmers

and　landlords　…　a　union　by　no　means　uncommon；　but　which　does　not

alter；　in　any　degree；　the　nature　of　rent；　or　its　essential

separation　from　profits。　If　the　general　profits　of　stock　were　20

per　cent　and　particular　portions　of　land　would　yield　30　per　cent

on　the　capital　employed；　10　per　cent　of　the　30　would　obviously　be

rent；　by　whomsoever　received。

　　　　It　happens；　indeed；　sometimes；　that　from　bad　government；

extravagant　habits；　and　a　faulty　constitution　of　society；　the

accumulation　of　capital　is　stopped；　while　fertile　land　is　in

considerable　plenty；　in　which　case　profits　may　continue

permanently　very　high；　but　even　in　this　case　wages　must

necessarily　fall；　which　by　reducing　the　expenses　of　cultivation

must　occasion　rents。　There　is　nothing　so　absolutely　unavoidable

in　the　progress　of　society　as　the　fall　of　wages；　that　is　such　a

fall　as；　combined　with　the　habits　of　the　labouring　classes；　will

regulate　the　progress　of　population　according　to　the　means　of

subsistence。　And　when；　from　the　want　of　an　increase　of　capital；

the　increase　of　produce　is　checked；　and　the　means　of　subsistence

come　to　a　stand；　the　wages　of　labour　must　necessarily　fall　so

low；　as　only　just　to　maintain　the　existing　population；　and　to

prevent　any　increase。

　　　　We　observe　in　consequence；　that　in　all　those　countries；　such

as　Poland；　where；　from　the　want　of　accumulation；　the　profits　of

stock　remain　very　high；　and　the　progress　of　cultivation　either

proceeds　very　slowly；　or　is　entirely　stopped；　the　wages　of　labour

are　extremely　low。　And　this　cheapness　of　labour；　by　diminishing

the　expenses　of　cultivation；　as　far　as　labour　is　concerned；

counteracts　the　effects　of　the　high　profits　of　stock；　and

generally　leaves　a　larger　rent　to　the　landlord　than　in　those

countries；　such　as　America；　where；　by　a　rapid　accumulation　of

stock；　which　can　still　find　advantageous　employment；　and　a　great

demand　for　labour；　which　is　accompanied　by　an　adequate　increase

of　produce　and　population；　profits　cannot　be　low；　and　labour　for

some　considerable　time　remains　very　high。

　　　　It　may　be　laid　down；　therefore；　as　an　incontrovertible　truth；

that　as　a　nation　reaches　any　considerable　degree　of　wealth；　and

any　considerable　fullness　of　population；　which　of　course　cannot

take　place　without　a　great　fall　both　in　the　profits　of　stock　and

the　wages　of　labour；　the　separation　of　rents；　as　a　kind　of

fixture　upon　lands　of　a　certain　quality；　is　a　law　as　invariable

as　the　action　of　the　principle　of　gravity。　And　that　rents　are

neither　a　mere　nominal　value；　nor　a　value　unnecessarily　and

injuriously　transferred　from　one　set　of　people　to　another；　but　a

most　real　and　essential　part　of　the　whole　value　of　the　national

property；　and　placed　by　the　laws　of　nature　where　they　are；　on　the

land；　by　whomsoever　possessed；　whether　the　landlord；　the　crown；

or　the　actual　cultivator。

　　　　Rent　then　has　been　traced　to　the　same　common　nature　with　that

general　surplus　from　the　land；　which　is　the　result　of　certain

qualities　of　the　soil　and　its　products；　and　it　has　been　found　to

commence　its　separation　from　profits；　as　soon　as　profits　and

wages　fall；　owing　to　the　comparative　scarcity　of　fertile　land　in

the　natural　progress　of　a　country　towards　wealth　and　population。

　　　　Having　examined　the　nature　and　origin　of　rent；　it　remains　for

us　to　consider　the　laws　by　which　it　is　governed；　and　by　which　its

increase　or　decrease　is　regulated。

　　　　When　capital　has　accumulated；　and　labour　fallen　on　the　most

eligible　lands　of　a　country；　other　lands　less　favourably

circumstanced　with　respect　to　fertility　or　situation；　may　be

occupied　with　advantage。　The　expenses　of　cultivation；　including

profits；　having　fallen；　poorer　land；　or　land　more　distant　from

markets；　though　yielding　at　first　no　rent；　may　fully　repay　these

expenses；　and　fully　answer　to　the　cultivator。　And　again；　when

either　the　profits　of　stock　or　the　wages　of　labour；　or　both；　have

still　further　fallen；　land　still　poorer；　or　still　less　favourably

situated；　may　be　taken　into　cultivation。　And；　at　every　step；　it

is　clear；　that　if　the　price　of　produce　does　not　fall；　the　rents

of　land　will　rise。　And　the　price　of　produce　will　not　fall；　as

long　as　the　industry　and　ingenuity　of　the　labouring　classes；

assisted　by　the　capitals　of　those　not　employed　upon　the　land；　can

find　something　to　give　in　exchange　to　the　cultivators　and

landlords；　which　will　stimulate　them　to　continue　undiminished

their　agricultural　exertions；　and　maintain　their　increasing

excess　of　produce。

　　　　In　tracing　more　particularly　the　laws　which　govern　the　rise

and　fall　of　rents；　the　main　causes　which　diminish　the　expenses　of

cultivation；　or　reduce　the　cost　of　the　instruments　of　production；

compared　with　the　price　of　produce；　require　to　be　more

specifically　enumerated。　The　principal　of　these　seem　to　be　four：

first；　such　an　accumulation　of　capital　as　will　lower　the　profits

of　stock；　secondly；　such　an　increase　of　population　as　will　lower

the　wages　of　labour；　thirdly；　such　agricultural　improvements；　or

such　increase　of　exertions；　as　will　diminish　the　number　of

labourers　necessary　to　produce　a　given　effect；　and　fourthly；　such

an　increase　in　the　price　of　agricultural　produce；　from　increased

demand；　as　without　nominally　lowering　the　expense　of　production；

will　increase　the　difference　between　this　expense　and　the　price

of　produce。

　　　　The　operation　of　the　three　first　causes　in　lowering　the

expenses　of　cultivation；　compared　with　the　price　of　produce；　are

quite　obvious；　the　fourth　requires　a　few　further　observations。

　　　　If　a　great　and　continued　demand　should　arise　among

surrounding　nations　for　the　raw　produce　of　a　particular　country；

the　price　of　this　produce　would　of　course　rise　considerably；　and

the　expenses　of　cultivation；　rising　only　slowly　and　gradually　to

the　same　proportion；　the　price　of　produce　might　for　a　long　time

keep　so　much　ahead；　as　to　give　a　prodigious　stimulus　to

improvement；　and　encourage　the　employment　of　much　capital　in

bringing　fresh　land　under　cultivation；　and　rendering　the　old　much

more　productive。

　　　　Nor　would　the　effect　be　essentially　different　in　a　country

which　continued　to　feed　its　own　people；　if　instead　of　a　demand

for　its　raw　produce；　there　was　the　same　increasing　demand　for　its

manufactures。　These　manufactures；　if　from　such　a　demand　the　value

of　their　amount　in　foreign　countries　was　greatly　to　increase；

would　bring　back　a　great　increase　of　value　in　return；　which

increase　of　value　could　not　fail　to　increase　the　value　of　the　raw

produce。　The　demand　for　agricultural　as　well　as　manufactured

produce　would　be　augmented；　and　a　considerable　stimulus；　though

not　perhaps　to　the　same　extent　as　in　the　last　case；　would　be

given　to　every　kind　of　improvement　on　the　land。

　　　　A　similar　effect　would　be　produced　by　the　introduction　of　new

machinery；　and　a　more　judicious　division　of　labour　in

manufactures。　It　almost　always　happens　in　this　case；　not　only

that　the　quantity　of　manufactures　is　very　greatly　increased；　but

that　the　value　of　the　whole　mass　is　augmented；　from　the　great

extension　of　the　demand　for　them；　occasioned　by　their　cheapness。

We　see；　in　consequence；　that　in　all　rich　manufacturing　and

commercial　countries；　the　value　of　manufactured　and　commercial

products　bears　a　very　high　proportion　to　the　raw　products；（10*）

whereas；　in　comparatively　poor　countries；　without　much　internal

trade　and　foreign　commerce；　the　value　of　their　raw　produce

constitutes　almost　the　whole　of　their　wealth。　If　we　suppose　the

wages　of　labour　so　to　rise　with　the　rise　of　produce；　as　to　give

the　labourer　the　same　command　of　the　means　of　subsistence　as

before；　yet　if　he　is　able　to　purchase　a　greater　quantity　of　other

necessaries　and　conveniencies；　both　foreign　and　domestic；　with

the　price　of　a　given　quantity　of　corn；　he　may　be　equally　well

fed；　clothed；　and　lodged；　and　population　may　be　equally

encouraged；　although　the　wages　of　labour　may　not　rise　so　high　in

proportion　as　the　price　of　produce。

　　　　And　even　when　the　price　of　labour　does　really　rise　in

proportion　to　the　price　of　produce；　which　is　a　very　rare　case；

and　can　only　happen　when　the　demand　for　labou