Backdrops of polo matches and mansions imply wealth； steelyards and factories imply durability；
and bright lights and tall buildings imply success。 For Americans； especially males； the automobile
is almost an extension of one’s self。 Cars convey an image of ourselves； as we would like others to
perceive us。
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The municator
Individuals in automobile advertisements are usually very attractive； modeling the sort of person
the buyer would want to be。 Occasionally； the municator is someone expected to know a lot
about cars； such as a famous racecar driver or greasy mechanic。
Beer
The Audience
The audience for beer is middle… and working…class males； “good ol’ boys” who like to get together
to go fishing； watch football games； or play pool。 Females appear in beer mercials； but often
only as props。 Beer is a man’s drink； and women are often targeted with other beverages such as
wine coolers。
The Message
Beer is associated with good times。 Young； attractive； healthy people are often seen running around
beaches； attending terrific parties； and engaging in thrill…seeking sports。 People who drink beer can
also be portrayed as “down to earth” folk； just like you。 These “normal” people are more likely to sit
in the kitchen or the backyard than in a formal setting； and they eat hamburgers and apple pie。 The
motivation for drinking beer is to have good friends and to have good times with them； to reward
yourself at the end of the day with a beer or two while watching ball games。
The municator
Most often； a male without a necktie； or at least a loosened tie； possibly in a flannel work shirt； touts
the beer。 He is a good “All…American” man’s man。 He knows how to hunt and fish； is a skilled
athlete； can fix cars； and is not afraid of an honest day’s work。
You might have your class discuss other products such as pain relievers； colas； and clothes。 Have
your class use their critical thinking skills to figure out the advertiser’s motivation the next time that
they see an advertisement。 They might want to ask themselves：
。 Am I a member of the target audience？
。 Is the product really special and different； or just trying to be？
。 What claims does the advertisement make of the product？ How are the claims
substantiated？
。 If statistics are used； are they used fairly？
。 If the product is pared to another； is it pared to a relevant product in a reasonable
way？
。 What are the nonverbal messages that the advertisement tries to impart？
。 How were the municators chosen to maximize impact and believability？
。 What need does the product fill？ Is the need real； or created by the advertisement？
Finally； advertising is not all bad。 If it was； it might not be allowed。 Ask your class why
advertisements are legal； although their only purpose is to influence people to do things that they
might not do without advertisements。 One positive aspect of advertisements is their informational
value。 They alert consumers to the presence of new products； and to legitimate differences among
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exiting products。 Are there others？ In closing； remember what the Romans said； “Caveat emptor！”
（Let the buyer beware）。
Psychological Factors and Obesity
While genetic and metabolic factors clearly influence many cases of obesity； personal； social；
cultural； and environmental factors also play a distinct role。 As the text states； the number of people
you are with can affect how much you eat。 Also； we may eat more in certain social situations where
eating is expected。 Low self…esteem； having been sexually abused； and high levels of depressive
anxiety are correlated with obesity。 Family and cultural norms may also play a part。 Some cultures
perceive what we consider obesity to be attractive。 In our culture； we idolize health and thinness；
but we have slipped into lifestyles in which so many Americans have access to fat…rich foods and
are physically inactive； that large numbers of Americans are obese and dieting has bee the
norm for a majority of American women。 Many younger women also develop eating disorders such
as bulimia and anorexia； largely in response to trying to achieve unrealistic standards of thinness。
This can be a useful topic to discuss with the class； because many college students are in the
highest…risk group for developing these disorders。 They are also at an age where they are beginning
to develop lifestyle norms that can have long…term implications for their risk for obesity。
Extrinsic Rewards May Spoil Pleasure
The following tale is useful as a lead…in to a discussion of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards：
An Italian shoemaker in New York became the target of epithets shouted gleefully by boys in
the neighborhood。 “Dirty wop！” “Greaseball； go back to Sicily！” And other obscenities not fit
for print。 The boys were a general nuisance and disrupted business。 The shoemaker ignored the
boys in vain。 He tried to reason with them； and he tried to chase them away； all to no avail。 One
day when he saw them approaching； the shoemaker tried a new approach。 “Don’t ask me
why；” said the shoemaker to the boys； “but I will give each one of you 50 cents if you will shout；
“Dirty wop！ No greaseballs in our neighborhood！” as loud as you can。” The boys were
delighted and enthusiastically shouted the phrases at the top of their lungs。
The next day； right after school； the boys reappeared； expecting more of the same。 The
shoemaker met them with a smile and said； “You did such a wonderful job yesterday； I will
gladly pay 50 cents to each of you that shouts the same things that you did yesterday； and
makes up one new one。” Again； the boys plied； screaming at the top of their lungs until
they were hoarse。
The boys appeared the third day； and again the shoemaker met them with a smile。
Nevertheless； today he was apologetic。 “I am sorry；” he said； “but business has been slow。 You
put on a marvelous show yesterday； but all that I can afford today is a nickel。” The boys obliged
by shouting the epithets with somewhat less enthusiasm than they had the day before。
On the fourth day； the boys appeared right on schedule。 Again； the shoemaker met them
apologetically。 “The show that you put on yesterday was indeed worth it； but business is so
bad that I can not afford to pay you today。” At this point； so the story goes； the boys grumbled
that they had better things to do than entertain a dumb Italian； and wandered off； never to be
seen again。 Why did this approach at changing the boys’ behavior work when none other had？
It worked because it changed what had been an intrinsically rewarding activity into an activity
that was done for an extrinsic monetary reward。 Then； when the extrinsic reward was removed；
the boys no longer had intrinsic or extrinsic motivation to engage in the problem behavior。 In
simple terms； the fun was taken out of it。
Psychologist Mark Lepper offers the following conclusions about the research and theory on the
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effects of reward on subsequent motivation：
。 Punishment is usually thought to create pliant behavior change without
internalization of the underlying attitudes； values； morality； or principles。 Reward has
been assumed to enhance likelihood that the desired behavior change will be internalized。
。 Festinger’s dissonance theory clearly distinguishes between public pliance and private
acceptance in terms of the person’s perception of the external versus internal locus of
pressure to behave in the given way。 Private acceptance （internalized behavior change）
involves the actor believing he or she had sufficient freedom of decision to refuse to do a
behavior and that the decision was not overdetermined by threats； incentives； or someone
else’s justification。
。 When extrinsic rewards are imposed on an activity that was formerly freely chosen because
of its intrinsic value to the child； subsequent motivation to engage in that activity is
reduced。 This is true for task…contingent rewards。
。 Performance…contingent rewards do not necessarily undermine intrinsic motivation as
task…contingent rewards do。
。 The greatest loss of intrinsic motivation es when the pupil perceives his or her task
behavior to be under surveillance and extrinsically rewarded。
Basis of Motivation and Its Theoretical Perspectives
Motivation is defined as the concept we use when describing the forces acting on or within an
organism to initiate and direct behavior。 We also use the concept to explain differences in intensity
of behavior and to indicate the direction of behavior。 Increased intensity of behaviors is thought to
result from increased levels of motivation。 For example； when we are hungry； we direct our energies
to obtaining food。
We study motivation because both casual and scientific observation tell us that behavior is often
triggered by something。 Something motivates us to behave in a certain way。 Motivation includes
certain characteristics； such as activation； persistence； and vigor：
Activation
Although motivation is often viewed as being behaviorally activating； the resulting behavior
activated may not always be overt and observable。 For example； a rabbit freezes when a hawk flies
overhead。 The rabbit’s motivation for survival results in an “activity” of immobilization； although
the rabbit’s heart rate is high because of the activation of its peripheral nervous system。 Therefore；
motivation is not necessarily overt； physically observable activation。 It may be； but it also may not
be。
Persistence
Persistence appears to be one of several possible indices of motivation。 That is； the level of
persistence appears to be an indicator of the level of motivation。 If your cat is just a little hungry； or
maybe just bored； it may follow you to the kitchen and meow around its bowl in a half…hearted
attempt to be fed。 If your cat is starving； however； it may meow vociferously while pacing back and
forth near the kitchen door。 It may try to get your attention by sinking its claws deep into yo