consequently lawful in the Territories while not yet constituted as States； even against the will of a majority of their inhabitants。 This memorable decision has probably done more than anything else to bring the sectional division to the crisis which has issued in civil war。 The main pillar of the American Constitution is scarcely strong enough to bear many more such shocks。 The tribunals which act as umpires between the Federal and the State Governments naturally also decide all disputes between two States； or between a citizen of one State and the government of another。 The usual remedies between nations； war and diplomacy； being precluded by the federal union； it is necessary that a judicial remedy should supply their place。 The Supreme Court of the Federation dispenses international law； and is the first great example of what is now one of the most prominent wants of civilised society； a real International Tribunal。 The powers of a Federal Government naturally extend not only to peace and war； and all questions which arise between the country and foreign governments； but to making any other arrangements which are； in the opinion of the States； necessary to their enjoyment of the full benefits of union。 For example； it is a great advantage to them that their mutual commerce should be free； without the impediment of frontier duties and custom…houses。 But this internal freedom cannot exist if each State has the power of fixing the duties on interchange of commodities between itself and foreign countries； since every foreign product let in by one State would be let into all the rest。 And hence all custom duties and trade regulations； in the United States； are made or repealed by the Federal Government exclusively。 Again； it is a great convenience to the States to have but one coinage； and but one system of weights and measures； which can only be ensured if the regulation of these matters is entrusted to the Federal Government。 The certainty and celerity of Post Office communication is impeded； and its expense increased； if a letter has to pass through half a dozen sets of public offices； subject to different supreme authorities： it is convenient； therefore； that all Post Offices should be under the Federal Government。 But on such questions the feelings of different communities are liable to be different。 One of the American States； under the guidance of a man who has displayed powers as a speculative political thinker superior to any who has appeared in American politics since the authors of the Federalist；* claimed a veto for each State on the custom laws of the Federal Congress： and that statesman； in a posthumous work of great ability； which has been printed and widely circulated by the legislature of South Carolina； vindicated this pretension on the general principle of limiting the tyranny of the majority； and protecting minorities by admitting them to a substantial participation in political power。 One of the most disputed topics in American politics； during the early part of this century； was whether the power of the Federal Government ought to extend； and whether by the Constitution it did extend； to making roads and canals at the cost of the Union。 It is only in transactions with foreign powers that the authority of the Federal Government is of necessity complete。 On every other subject； the question depends on how closely the people in general wish to draw the federal tie； what portion of their local freedom of action they are willing to surrender； in order to enjoy more fully the benefit of being one nation。
* Mr。 Calhoun。
Respecting the fitting constitution of a federal government within itself much need not be said。 It of course consists of a legislative branch and an executive； and the constitution of each is amenable to the same principles as that of representative governments generally。 As regards the mode of adapting these general principles to a federal government； the provision of the American Constitution seems exceedingly judicious； that Congress should consist of two Houses； and that while one of them is constituted according to population； each State being entitled to representatives in the ratio of the number of its inhabitants； the other should represent not the citizens； but the State Governments； and every State； whether large or small； should be represented in it by the same number of members。 This provision precludes any undue power from being exercised by the more powerful States over the rest； and guarantees the reserved rights of the State Governments； by making it impossible； as far as the mode of representation can prevent； that any measure should pass Congress unless approved not only by a majority of the citizens； but by a majority of the States。 I have before adverted to the further incidental advantage obtained of raising the standard of qualifications in one of the Houses。 Being nominated by select bodies； the Legislatures of the various States； whose choice； for reasons already indicated； is more likely to fall on eminent men than any popular election… who have not only the power of electing such； but a strong motive to do so； because the influence of their State in the general deliberations must be materially affected by the personal weight and abilities of its representatives； the Senate of the United States； thus chosen； has always contained nearly all the political men of established and high reputation in the Union： while the Lower House of Congress has； in the opinion of competent observers； been generally as remarkable for the absence of conspicuous personal merit as the Upper House for its presence。 When the conditions exist for the formation of efficient and durable Federal Unions； the multiplication of them is always a benefit to the world。 It has the same salutary effect as any other extension of the practice of co…operation； through which the weak； by uniting； can meet on equal terms with the strong。 By diminishing the number of those petty states which are not equal to their own defence； it weakens the temptations to an aggressive policy； whether working directly by arms； or through the prestige of superior power。 It of course puts an end to war and diplomatic quarrels； and usually also to restrictions on commerce； between the States composing the Union； while； in reference to neighbouring nations； the increased military strength conferred by it is of a kind to be almost exclusively available for defensive； scarcely at all for aggressive； purposes。 A federal government has not a sufficiently concentrated authority to conduct with much efficiency any war but one of self…defence； in which it can rely on the voluntary co…operation of every citizen： nor is there anything very flattering to national vanity or ambition in acquiring； by a successful war； not subjects； nor even fellow…citizens； but only new； and perhaps troublesome； independent members of the confederation。 The warlike proceedings of the Americans in Mexico were purely exceptional； having been carried on principally by volunteers； under the influence of the migratory propensity which prompts individual Americans to possess themselves of unoccupied land； and stimulated； if by any public motive； not by that of national aggrandisement； but by the purely sectional purpose of extending slavery。 There are few signs in the proceedings of Americans； nationally or individually； that the desire of territorial acquisition for their country as such has any considerable power over them。 Their hankering after Cuba is； in the same manner； merely sectional； and the northern States； those opposed to slavery； have never in any way favoured it。 The question may present itself （as in Italy at its present uprising） whether a country； which is determined to be united； should form a complete or a merely federal union。 The point is sometimes necessarily decided by the mere territorial magnitude of the united whole。 There is a limit to the extent of country which can advantageously be governed； or even whose government can be conveniently superintended； from a single centre。 There are vast countries so governed； but they； or at least their distant provinces； are in general deplorably ill administered； and it is only when the inhabitants are almost savages that they could not manage their affairs better separately。 This obstacle does not exist in the case of Italy； the size of which does not come up to that of several very efficiently governed single states in past and present times。 The question then is whether the different parts of the nation require to be governed in a way so essentially different that it is not probable the same Legislature； and the same ministry or administrative body； will give satisfaction to them all。 Unless this be the case； which is a question of fact； it is better for them to be completely united。 That a totally different system of laws； and very different administrative institutions； may exist in two portions of a country without being any obstacle to legislative unity is proved by the case of England and Scotland。 Perhaps； however； this undisturbed co…existence of two legal systems； under one united legislature； making different laws for the two sections of the country in adaptation to the previous differences； might not be so well preserved； or the same confidence might not be felt in its preservation； in a country whose legislators were more possessed （as is apt to be the case on the Continent） with the mania for uniformity。 A people having that unbounded toleration which is characteristic of this country for every description of anomaly； so long as those whose interests it concerns do not feel aggrieved by it； afforded an exceptionally advantageous field for trying this difficult experiment。 In most countries； if it was an object to retain different systems of law； it might probably be necessary to retain distinct legislatures as guardians of them； which is perfectly compatible with a national Parliament and King； or a national Parliament without a King； supreme over the external relations of all the members of the body。 Whenever it is not deemed necessary to maintain permanently； in the different provinces； different systems of jurisprudence； and fundamental institutions grounded on different principle