the psychology of revolution- 第39部分

governing；　but　it　never　lacked　a　strong　will。　　Nothing

restraining　it；　neither　respect　for　law　nor　consideration　for　the

citizens；　nor　love　of　the　public　welfare；　it　was　able　to　impose

upon　France　a　despotism　more　crushing　than　that　of　any　Government

since　the　beginning　of　the　Revolution；　not　excepting　the　Terror。



Although　it　utilised　methods　analogous　to　those　of　the

Convention；　and　ruled　France　in　the　most　tyrannical　manner；　the

Directory；　no　more　than　the　Convention；　was　never　the　master　of

France。



This　fact；　which　I　have　already　noted；　proves　once　more　the

impotence　of　material　constraint　to　dominate　moral　forces。　　It

cannot　be　too　often　repeated　that　the　true　guide　of　mankind　is

the　moral　scaffolding　erected　by　his　ancestors。



Accustomed　to　live　in　an　organised　society；　supported　by　codes

and　respected　traditions；　we　can　with　difficulty　represent　to

ourselves　the　condition　of　a　nation　deprived　of　such　a　basis。　　As

a　general　thing　we　only　see　the　irksome　side　of　our　environment；

too　readily　forgetting　that　society　can　exist　only　on　condition

of　imposing　certain　restraints；　and　that　laws；　manners；　and

custom　constitute　a　check　upon　the　natural　instincts　of　barbarism

which　never　entirely　perishes。



The　history　of　the　Convention　and　the　Directory　which　followed　it

shows　plainly　to　what　degree　disorder　may　overcome　a　nation

deprived　of　its　ancient　structure；　and　having　for　guide　only　the

artificial　combinations　of　an　insufficient　reason。





2。　　Despotic　Government　of　the　Directory。　　Recrudescence　of　the

Terror。





With　the　object　of　diverting　attention；　occupying　the　army；　and

obtaining　resources　by　the　pillage　of　neighbouring　countries；　the

Directors　decided　to　resume　the　wars　of　conquest　which　had

succeeded　under　the　Convention。



These　continued　during　the　life　time　of　the　Directory。　　The

armies　won　a　rich　booty；　especially　in　Italy。



Some　of　the　invaded　populations　were　so　simple　as　to　suppose　that

these　invasions　were　undertaken　in　their　interest。　　They　were　not

long　in　discovering　that　all　military　operations　were

accompanied　by　crushing　taxes　and　the　pillage　of　churches；　public

treasuries；　&c。



The　final　consequence　of　this　policy　of　conquest　was　the

formation　of　a　new　coalition　against　France；　which　lasted　until

1801。



Indifferent　to　the　state　of　the　country　and　incapable　of

reorganising　it；　the　Directors　were　principally　concerned　in

struggling　against　an　incessant　series　of　conspiracies　in　order

to　keep　in　power。



This　task　was　enough　to　occupy　their　leisure；　for　the　political

parties　had　not　disarmed。　　Anarchy　had　reached　such　a　point　that

all　were　calling　for　a　hand　powerful　enough　to　restore　order。　

Everyone　felt；　the　Directors　included；　that　the　republican　system

could　not　last　much　longer。



Some　dreamed　of　re…establishing　royalty；　others　the　Terrorist

system；　while　others　waited　for　a　general。　　Only　the　purchasers

of　the　national　property　feared　a　change　of　Government。



The　unpopularity　of　the　Directory　increased　daily；　and　when　in

May；　1797；　the　third　part　of　the　Assembly　had　to　be　renewed；　the

majority　of　those　elected　were　hostile　to　the　system。



The　Directors　were　not　embarrassed　by　a　little　thing　like　that。　

They　annulled　the　elections　in　49　departments；　154　of　the　new

deputies　were　invalidated　and　expelled；　53　condemned　to

deportation。　　Among　these　latter　figured　the　most　illustrious

names　of　the　Revolution：　　Portalis；　Carnot；　Tronson　du　Coudray；

&c。



To　intimidate　the　electors；　military　commissions　condemned　to

death；　rather　at　random；　160　persons；　and　sent　to　Guiana　330；　of

whom　half　speedily　died。　　The　emigres　and　priests　who

had　returned　to　France　were　violently　expelled。　　This　was　known

as　the　coup　d'etat　of　Fructidor。



This　coup；　which　struck　more　especially　at　the　moderates；　was

not　the　only　one　of　its　kind；　another　quickly　followed。　　The

Directors；　finding　the　Jacobin　deputies　too　numerous；　annulled

the　elections　of　sixty　of　them。



The　preceding　facts　displayed　the　tyrannical　temper　of　the

Directors；　but　this　appeared　even　more　plainly　in　the　details　of

their　measures。　　The　new　masters　of　France　also　proved　to　be　as

bloodthirsty　as　the　most　ferocious　deputies　of　the　Terror。



The　guillotine　was　not　re…established　as　a　permanency；　but

replaced　by　deportation　under　conditions　which　left　the　victims

little　chance　of　survival。　　Sent　to　Rochefort　in　cages　of　iron

bars；　exposed　to　all　the　severities　of　the　weather；　they　were

then　packed　into　boats。



‘‘Between　the　decks　of　the　Decade　and　the　Bayonnaise；''

says　Taine；　‘‘the　miserable　prisoners；　suffocated　by　the　lack　of

air　and　the　torrid　heat；　bullied　and　fleeced；　died　of　hunger　or

asphyxia；　and　Guiana　completed　the　work　of　the　voyage：　of　193

taken　thither　by　the　Decade　39　were　left　alive　at　the　end　of

twenty…two　months；　of　120　taken　by　the　Bayonnaise　1　remained。



Observing　everywhere　a　Catholic　renascence；　and　imagining　that

the　clergy　were　conspiring　against　them；　the　Directors　deported

or　sent　to　the　galleys　in　one　year　1；448　priests；　to　say　nothing

of　a　large　number　who　were　summarily　executed。　　The　Terror　was　in

reality　completely　re…established。



The　autocratic　despotism　of　the　Directory　was　exercised　in　all

the　branches　of　the　administration；　notably　the　finances。　　Thus；

having　need　of　six　hundred　million　francs；　it　forced　the

deputies；　always　docile；　to　vote　a　progressive　impost；　which

yielded；　however；　only　twelve　millions。　　Being　presently　in　the

same　condition；　it　decreed　a　forced　loan　of　a　hundred　millions；

which　resulted　in　the　closing　of　workshops；　the　stoppage　of

business；　and　the　dismissal　of　domestics。　　It　was　only　at　the

price　of　absolute　ruin　that　forty　millions　could　be　obtained。



To　assure　itself　of　domination　in　the　provinces　the　Directory

caused　a　so…called　law　of　hostages　to　be　passed；　according　to

which　a　list　of　hostages；　responsible　for　all　offences；　was　drawn

up　in　each　commune。



It　is　easy　to　understand　what　hatred　such　a　system　provoked。　　At

the　end　of　1799　fourteen　departments　were　in　revolt　and　forty…six

were　ready　to　rise。　　If　the　Directory　had　lasted　the　dissolution

of　society　would　have　been　complete。



For　that　matter；　this　dissolution　was　far　advanced。　　Finances；

administration；　everything　was　crumbling。　　The　receipts　of　the

Treasury；　consisting　of　depreciated　assignats　fallen　to　a

hundredth　part　of　their　original　value；　were　negligible。　　Holders

of　Government　stock　and　officers　could　no　longer　obtain　payment。



France　at　this　time　gave　travellers　the　impression　of　a　country

ravaged　by　war　and　abandoned　by　its　inhabitants。　　The　broken

bridges　and　dykes　and　ruined　buildings　made　all　traffic

impossible。　　The　roads；　long　deserted；　were　infested　by　brigands。



Certain　departments　could　only　be　crossed　at　the　price　of　buying

a　safe…conduct　from　the　leaders　of　these　bands。　　Industry

and　commerce　were　annihilated。　　In　Lyons　13；000　workshops　and

mills　out　of　15；000　had　been　forced　to　close。　　Lille；　Havre；

Bordeaux；　Lyons；　Marseilles；　&c。；　were　like　dead　cities。　　Poverty

and　famine　were　general。



The　moral　disorganisation　was　no　less　terrible。　　Luxury　and　the

craving　for　pleasure；　costly　dinners；　jewels；　and　extravagant

households　were　the　appanage　of　a　new　society　composed　entirely

of　stock…jobbers；　army　contractors；　and　shady　financiers　enriched

by　pillage。　　They　gave　Paris　that　superficial　aspect　of　luxury

and　gaiety　which　has　deluded　so　many　historians　of　this　period；

because　the　insolent　prodigality　displayed　covered　the　general

misery。



The　chronicles　of　the　Directory　as　told　in　books　help　to　show　us

of　what　lies　the　web　of　history　is　woven。　　The　theatre　has　lately

got　hold　of　this　period；　of　which　the　fashions　are　still

imitated。　　It　has　left　the　memory　of　a　joyous　period　of　re…birth

after　the　gloomy　drama　of　the　Terror。　　In　reality　the　drama　of

the　Directory　was　hardly　an　improvement　on　the　Terror　and　was

quite　as　sanguinary。　　Finally；　it　inspired　such　loathing　that　the

Directors；　feeling　that　it　could　not　last；　sought　themselves　for

the　dictator　capable　of　replacing　it　and　also　of　protecting　them。





3。　　The　Advent　of　Bonaparte。





We　have　seen　that　at　the　end　of　the　Directory　the　anarchy　and

disorganisation　were　such　that　every　one　was　desperately　calling

for　the　man　of　energy　capable　of　re…establishing　order。　　As　early

as　1795　a　number　of　deputies　had　thought　for　a　moment　of　re…

establishing　royalty。　　Louis　XVIII。；　having　been　tactless

enough　to　declare　that　he　would　restore　the　ancien　regime　in

its　entirety；　return　all　property　to　its　original　owners；　and

punish　the　men　of　the　Revolution；　was　immediately　thrown　over。　

The　senseless　expedition　of　Quiberon　finally　alienated　the

supporters　of　the　future　sovereign。　　The　royalists　gave　a　proof

during　the　whole　of　the　Revolution　of　an　incapacity　and　a

narrowness　of　mind　which　justified　most　of　the　measures　taken

against　them。



The　monarchy　being　impossible；　it　was　necessary　to　find　a

general。　　Only　one　existed　whose　name　carried　weightBonaparte。　

The　campaign　in　Italy　had　just　made　him　famous。　　Having　crossed

the　Alps；　he　had　marched　from　victory　to　victory；　penetrated　to

Milan　and　Venice；　and　everywhere　obtained　important　war

contributions。　　He　then　made　towards　Vienna；　and　was　only　twenty…

five　leagues　from　its　gates　when　the　Emperor　of　Austria　decided

to　sue　for　peace。



But　great　as　was　his　renown；　the　young　general　did　not　consider

it　sufficient。　　To　increase　it　he　persuaded　the　Directory　that

the　power　of　England　could　be　shaken　by　an　invasion　of　Egypt；　and

in　May；　1798；　he　embarked　at　Toulon。



This　need　of　increasing　his　prestige　arose　from　a　very　sound

psychological　conception　which　he　clearly　expounded　at　St。

Helena：



‘‘The　most　influential　and　enlightened　generals　had　long　b