the psychology of revolution- 第40部分

Helena：



‘‘The　most　influential　and　enlightened　generals　had　long　been

pressing　the　general　of　Italy　to　take　steps　to　place　himself　at

the　head　of　the　Republic。　　He　refused；　he　was　not　yet　strong

enough　to　walk　quite　alone。　　He　had　ideas　upon　the　art　of

governing　and　upon　what　was　necessary　to　a　great　nation

which　were　so　different　from　those　of　the　men　of　the

Revolution　and　the　assemblies　that；　not　being　able　to　act　alone；

he　feared　to　compromise　his　character。　　He　determined　to　set　out

for　Egypt；　but　resolved　to　reappear　if　circumstances　should　arise

to　render　his　presence　useful　or　necessary。''



Bonaparte　did　not　stay　long　in　Egypt。　　Recalled　by　his　friends；

he　landed　at　Frejus；　and　the　announcement　of　his　return　provoked

universal　enthusiasm。　　There　were　illuminations　everywhere。　

France　collaborated　in　advance　in　the　coup　d'etat　prepared

by　two　Directors　and　the　principal　ministers。　　The　plot　was

organised　in　three　weeks。　　Its　execution　on　the　18th　of　Brumaire

was　accomplished　with　the　greatest　ease。



All　parties　experienced　the　greatest　delight　at　being　rid　of　the

sinister　gangs　who　had　so　long　oppressed　and　exploited　the

country。　　The　French　were　doubtless　about　to　enter　upon　a

despotic　system　of　government；　but　it　could　not　be　so　intolerable

as　that　which　had　been　endured　for　so　many　years。



The　history　of　the　coup　d'etat　of　Brumaire　justifies　all

that　we　have　already　said　of　the　impossibility　of　forming　exact

judgments　of　events　which　apparently　are　fully　understood　and

attested　by　no　matter　how　many　witnesses。



We　know　what　ideas　people　had　thirty　years　ago　concerning　the

coup　of　Brumaire。　　It　was　regarded　as　a　crime　committed　by　the

ambition　of　a　man　who　was　supported　by　his　army。　　As　a　matter　of

fact　the　army　played　no　part　whatever　in　the　affair。　　The　little

body　of　men　who　expelled　the　few　recalcitrant　deputies　were　not

soldiers　even；　but　the　gendarmes　of　the　Assembly　itself。　　The

true　author　of　the　coup　d'etat　was　the　Government　itself；　with

the　complicity　of　all　France。





4。　　Causes　of　the　Duration　of　the　Revolution。





If　we　limit　the　Revolution　to　the　time　necessary　for　the　conquest

of　its　fundamental　principlesequality　before　the　law；　free

access　to　public　functions；　popular　sovereignty；　control　of

expenditures；　&c。we　may　say　that　it　lasted　only　a　few　months。　

Towards　the　middle　of　1789　all　this　was　accomplished；　and　during

the　years　that　followed　nothing　was　added　to　it；　yet　the

Revolution　lasted　much　longer。



Confining　the　duration　to　the　dates　admitted　by　the　official

historians；　we　see　it　persisting　until　the　advent　of　Bonaparte；　a

space　of　some　ten　years。



Why　did　this　period　of　disorganisation　and　violence　follow　the

establishment　of　the　new　principles？　　We　need　not　seek　the　cause

in　the　foreign　war；　which　might　on　several　occasions　have　been

terminated；　thanks　to　the　divisions　of　the　allies　and　the

constant　victories　of　the　French；　neither　must　we　look　for　it　in

the　sympathy　of　Frenchmen　for　the　revolutionary　Government。　

Never　was　rule　more　cordially　hated　and　despised　than　that　of　the

Assemblies。　　By　its　revolts　as　well　as　by　its　repeated　votes　a

great　part　of　the　nation　displayed　the　horror　with　which　it

regarded　the　system。



This　last　point；　the　aversion　of　France　for　the　revolutionary

regime；　so　long　misunderstood；　has　been　well　displayed　by

recent　historians。　　The　author　of　the　last　book　published　on　the

Revolution；　M。　Madelin；　has　well　summarised　their　opinion　in　the

following　words：



‘‘As　early　as　1793　a　party　by　no　means　numerous　had　seized　upon

France；　the　Revolution；　and　the　Republic。　　Now；　three…quarters　of

France　longed　for　the　Revolution　to　be　checked；　or　rather

delivered　from　its　odious　exploiters；　but　these　held　the　unhappy

country　by　a　thousand　means。　。　。　。　　As　the　Terror　was　essential

to　them　if　they　were　to　rule；　they　struck　at　whomsoever　seemed　at

any　given　moment　to　be　opposed　to　the　Terror；　were　they　the　best

servants　of　the　Revolution。''



Up　to　the　end　of　the　Directory　the　government　was　exercised　by

Jacobins；　who　merely　desired　to　retain；　along　with　the　supreme

power；　the　riches　they　had　accumulated　by　murder　and　pillage；　and

were　ready　to　surrender　France　to　any　one　who　would　guarantee

them　free　possession　of　these。　　That　they　negotiated　the　coup

d'etat　of　Brumaire　with　Napoleon　was　simply　to　the　fact　that

they　had　not　been　able　to　realise　their　wishes　with　regard　to

Louis　XVIII。



But　how　explain　the　fact　that　a　Government　so　tyrannical　and　so

dishonoured　was　able　to　survive　for　so　many　years？



It　was　not　merely　because　the　revolutionary　religion　still

survived　in　men's　minds；　nor　because　it　was　forced　on　them　by

means　of　persecution　and　bloodshed；　but　especially；　as　I　have

already　stated；　on　account　of　the　great　interest　which　a　large

portion　of　the　population　had　in　maintaining　it。



This　point　is　fundamental。　　If　the　Revolution　had　remained　a

theoretical　religion；　it　would　probably　have　been　of　short

duration。　　But　the　belief　which　had　just　been　founded　very

quickly　emerged　from　the　domain　of　pure　theory。



The　Revolution　did　not　confine　itself　to　despoiling　the　monarchy；

the　nobility；　and　the　clergy　of　their　powers　of　government。　　In

throwing　into　the　hands　of　the　bourgeoisie　and　the　large

numbers　of　peasantry　the　wealth　and　the　employments　of　the　old

privileged　classes　it　had　at　the　same　stroke　turned　them　into

obstinate　supporters　of　the　revolutionary　system。　　All　those　who

had　acquired　the　property　of　which　the　nobles　and　clergy　had　been

despoiled　had　obtained　lands　and　chateaux　at　low　prices；　and

were　terrified　lest　the　restoration　of　the　monarchy　should　force

them　to　make　general　restitution。



It　was　largely　for　these　reasons　that　a　Government　which；　at　any

normal　period；　would　never　have　been　endured；　was　able　to　survive

until　a　master　should　re…establish　order；　while　promising　to

maintain　not　only　the　moral　but　also　the　material　conquests　of

the　Revolution。　　Bonaparte　realised　these　anxieties；　and　was

promptly　and　enthusiastically　welcomed。　　Material　conquests　which

were　still　contestable　and　theoretical　principles　which　were

still　fragile　were　by　him　incorporated　in　institutions　and　the

laws。　　It　is　an　error　to　say　that　the　Revolution　terminated　with

his　advent。　　Far　from　destroying　it；　he　ratified　and　consolidated

it。







CHAPTER　II



THE　RESTORATION　OF　ORDER。　　THE　CONSULAR　REPUBLIC



1。　　How　the　Work　of　the　Revolution　was　Confirmed　by　the

Consulate。



The　history　of　the　Consulate　is　as　rich　as　the　preceding　period

in　psychological　material。　　In　the　first　place　it　shows　us　that

the　work　of　a　powerful　individual　is　superior　to　that　of　a

collectivity。　　Bonaparte　immediately　replaced　the　bloody　anarchy

in　which　the　Republic　had　for　ten　years　been　writhing　by　a　period

of　order。　　That　which　none　of　the　four　Assemblies　of　the

Revolution　had　been　able　to　realise；　despite　the　most　violent

oppression；　a　single　man　accomplished　in　a　very　short　space　of

time。



His　authority　immediately　put　an　end　to　all　the　Parisian

insurrections　and　the　attempts　at　monarchical　resistance；　and　re…

established　the　moral　unity　of　France；　so　profoundly　divided　by

intense　hatreds。　　Bonaparte　replaced　an　unorganised　collective

despotism　by　a　perfectly　organised　individual　despotism。　

Everyone　gained　thereby；　for　his　tyranny　was　infinitely　less

heavy　than　that　which　had　been　endured　for　ten　long　years。　　We

must　suppose；　moreover；　that　it　was　unwelcome　to　very　few；　as　it

was　very　soon　accepted　with　immense　enthusiasm。



We　know　better　to…day　than　to　repeat　with　the　old　historians　that

Bonaparte　overthrew　the　Republic。　　On　the　contrary；　he　retained

of　it　all　that　could　be　retained；　and　never　would　have　been

retained　without　him；　by　establishing　all　the　practicable　work　of

the　Revolutionthe　abolition　of　privileges；　equality　before　the

law；　&c。in　institutions　and　codes　of　law。　　The　Consular

Government　continued；　moreover；　to　call　itself　the　Republic。



It　is　infinitely　probable　that　without　the　Consulate　a

monarchical　restoration　would　have　terminated　the　Directory；　and

would　have　wiped　out　the　greater　part　of　the　work　of　the

Revolution。　　Let　us　suppose　Bonaparte　erased　from　history。　　No

one；　I　think；　will　imagine　that　the　Directory　could　have　survived

the　universal　weariness　of　its　rule。　　It　would　certainly　have

been　overturned　by　the　royalist　conspiracies　which　were　breaking

out　daily；　and　Louis　XVIII。　would　probably　have　ascended　the

throne。　　Certainly　he　was　to　mount　it　sixteen　years　later；　but

during　this　interval　Bonaparte　gave　such　force　to　the　principles

of　the　Revolution；　by　establishing　them　in　laws　and　customs；　that

the　restored　sovereign　dared　not　touch　them；　nor　restore　the

property　of　the　returned　emigres。



Matters　would　have　been　very　different　had　Louis　XVIII。

immediately　followed　the　Directory。　　He　would　have　brought　with

him　all　the　absolutism　of　the　ancien　regime；　and　fresh

revolutions　would　have　been　necessary　to　abolish　it。　　We　know

that　a　mere　attempt　to　return　to　the　past　overthrew　Charles　X。



It　would　be　a　little　ingenuous　to　complain　of　the　tyranny

of　Bonaparte。　　Under　the　ancien　regime　Frenchmen　had

supported　every　species　of　tyranny；　and　the　Republic　had　created

a　despotism　even　heavier　than　that　of　the　monarchy。　　Despotism

was　then　a　normal　condition；　which　aroused　no　protest　save　when

it　was　accompanied　by　disorder。



A　constant　law　of　the　psychology　of　crowds　shows　them　as　creating

anarchy；　and　then　seeking　the　master　who　will　enable　them　to

emerge　therefrom。　　Bonaparte　was　this　master。





2。　　The　Reorganisation　of　France　by　the　Consulate。





Upon　assuming　power　Bonaparte　undertook　a　colossal　task。　　All　was

in　ruins；　all　was　to　be　rebuilt。　　On　the　morrow　of　the　coup　of

Brumaire　he　drafted；　almost　sin